The industrial application of phenolic acids (PAs) is significantly limited by their low solubility and poor bioavailability in lipid-rich systems. Lipophilization via esterification of PAs with lipid matrices offers a promising approach to address these challenges. In this study, an efficient lipase-chemical catalytic method was developed for synthesizing phenolic acid-esterified phosphatidylcholines (PA-EPCs) from PAs and phosphatidylcholine (PC). Three derivatives-caffeic acid-esterified phosphatidylcholines (CA-EPC), ferulic acid-esterified phosphatidylcholines (FA-EPC), and p-hydroxycinnamic acid-esterified phosphatidylcholines (p-HCA-EPC)-were successfully obtained with isolated yields of 67.5 %, 84.5 %, and 85.3 %, respectively. Their structures were confirmed by 1H/13C NMR and ESI-MS analyses. Compared with unmodified PC, PA-EPCs, especially CA-EPC, showed significantly enhanced in vitro antioxidant activity, as demonstrated by assays of lipid peroxide value, DPPH/ABTS radical scavenging capacity, and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP). Due to the incorporation of PC into PAs, PA-EPCs exhibited enhanced lipophilicity, which significantly improved the stability of oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions. This improvement was evidenced by higher emulsifying activity indices, smaller droplet sizes, more homogeneous distribution, and a slower increase in thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARs) over time. Collectively, these findings indicate that PA-EPCs possess remarkable potential as effective antioxidants and emulsifiers in food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries.
Investigating the relationship betw een molecular structure and the physical properties of self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) is essential for developing strategies to prevent nonspecific adsorption. In this study, we used a quartz crystal microbalance to examine this relationship from a rheological perspective, focusing on SAMs formed from oligo(ethylene oxide) molecules in which a single oxygen atom was substituted with either carbon or nitrogen. The results showed that replacing one oxygen atom with carbon increased the shear modulus of the SAMs, whereas substitution with nitrogen decreased it. In contrast, the shear viscosity remained unchanged regardless of the type of substitution.
Microbial properties of the strain MDT-5, which was isolated from the rumen of a goat, were investigated. Comparative 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis revealed that MDT-5 belongs to the family Lachnospiraceae with the highest homology to Pseudobutyrivibrio ruminis DSM 9787T. However, on the basis of the phenotypic differences between MDT-5 and P. ruminis DSM 9787T, MDT-5 was identified as a Pseudobutyrivibrio sp. MDT-5 is able to generate conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) from linoleic acid (LA), and its ability was high enough to compete for LA with other bacteria in the host intestinal tract. When MDT-5 cells were administered to mice, the fecal contents of P. ruminis and closely related strains were increased but reduced close to the basal level 48 h after administration ceased. This result suggests that MDT-5 can transit through the mouse gut over a period of a few days. Administration of MDT-5 to allergic dermatitis mice induced by repeated topical applications of oxazolone alleviated the symptoms of allergic dermatitis and the associated increase in ear thickness. This effect was found to be related to a decrease in mRNA expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-1β. Fecal LA level tended to decrease by MDT-5 administration, and colonic CLA level was increased in the mice administered MDT-5. These results suggest MDT-5 is useful as biological agent for alleviation of allergic dermatitis to increase CLA absorption in the large intestine.
PEG-150 pentaerythrityl tetrastearate (PEG-150PETS) is an amphiphilic molecule with a tetrameric structure comprising four ethylene oxide blocks bound to a central carbon atom and terminal stearic chains. This starshaped tetrameric molecule can be classified as a nonionic oligomeric surfactant. Generally, PEG-150PETS is used as a cosurfactant by mixing it in small amounts with aqueous solutions of other surfactants to increase the viscosity of the solution. In this study, we investigated aggregate formation and surface properties of PEG-150PETS in an aqueous solution. Pyrene probing and light scattering methods revealed that PEG-150PETS formed aggregates at concentrations above 0.015 mmol L-1. The size of the aggregates was an average of 500-700 nm by dynamic light scattering measurements. Transmission electron microscopy revealed that the aggregates formed giant micelle, which is composed of a mesh-like framework. By contrast, the surface tension of the aqueous solution of PEG-150PETS was reduced to 51 mN m-1, but the surface activity was not as high as that of general surfactants. Tetrameric surfactants, which have large molecular structures, are more favorable than surface activity for the formation of aggregates.
Water-soluble polymers (WSPs) are normally used as thickeners for colloidal stabilization of oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions because the creaming of O/W emulsions is prevented by increasing the viscosity of continuous phase. We examine here the effect of WSPs such as polyethylene glycol (PEG), polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) and partially saponified poly(vinyl alcohol) (ps-PVA) on the colloidal stabilization of O/W emulsions prepared in aqueous solutions of low concentration WSP (0.5 wt%) as continuous phase. We found that the colloidal stability of WSP-O/W emulsions prepared by mixing soybean oil (SOY) and aqueous ps-PVA solution with a rotor-stator homogenizer (ps-PVA-SOY/W emulsion) was remarkably high compared to other WSPs-SOY/W emulsions, even if the viscosity of aqueous ps-PVA solutions that we applied in this work was almost same with that of water. In particular, the ps-PVA with lower saponification degree was more effective for colloidal stabilization of O/W emulsions than other WSPs. The higher colloidal stability of ps-PVA-SOY/W emulsions prepared using ps-PVA with lower saponification degree is most likely due to the decrease in interfacial tension between oil and water by ps-PVA with lower saponification degree, and the resulting formation of smaller-sized oil droplets.
This study evaluated and compared the wound-healing effects of biosurfactant-loaded ointments derived from the viscera of Catla catla fish at concentrations of 25, 50, and 75 µg/mL. The results demonstrated significant improvements in wound contraction and tissue regeneration. The greater wound contraction (84.31 ± 1.7 %) was observed in the group treated with the 75 µg/mL ointment group on day 10, showing a significant difference from the negative control (69.68 ± 1.3 %) (p ≤ 0.05). Histological analysis revealed re-epithelization and hair follicle formation in the 75 µg/mL ointment group, indicating complete tissue regeneration. To further confirm the efficacy of ointments, antioxidant assays were performed. On day 10, the 75 µg/mL ointment group showed a significantly higher glutathione level (GSH) (51.3 ± 2.8 mg/L) than the negative control group (20.9 ± 0.8 mg/L, p < 0.01). Additionally, the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) were significantly higher in the 50 µg/mL ointment group than in the control group, with values of 208.0 ± 3.3 U/mL for SOD and 207.4 ± 4.0 U/L for GSH-Px (p < 0.01), respectively. These findings suggest that biosurfactant ointments enhance wound healing by promoting wound contraction, strengthening antioxidant defense, and supporting tissue regeneration, highlighting their potential as effective alternative to conventional wound treatments.
Black pod disease caused by Phytophthora palmivora (P. palmivora) remains a major constraint in global cocoa production, leading to yie ld losses of up to 40 % and increased resistance to synthetic fungicides. In this study, a novel visible-light-responsive TiO2-Ni hybrid suspension system was synthesized via a modified sol-gel method and evaluated as an eco-friendly antifungal agent specifically against P. palmivora. Structural, morphological, and compositional analyses using FTIR, XRD, and SEM-EDX confirmed the successful incorporation of Ni into the TiO2 lattice, while UV-Vis DRS revealed a red shift in absorption and a narrowed band gap from 3.20 eV to 3.05 eV. Antifungal performance was assessed in vitro at various concentrations (0.1-1.0 % w/v) under dark, UV, and visible-light conditions. The TiO2-Ni suspension exhibited the highest inhibition under visible-light irradiation, achieving near-complete inhibition of mycelial growth at 0.5-1.0 % concentrations, whereas minimal activity was observed under dark conditions. This enhanced performance is attributed to improved electron-hole separation and increased generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), leading to membrane disruption and cell damage. These findings highlight the TiO2-Ni hybrid suspension as a promising and sustainable alternative to conventional fungicides for controlling P. palmivora in cocoa cultivation.
This paper investigates the development of a sustainable thermal energy storage material for buildings by combining silica-encapsulated lauric acid phase change materials (PCMs) with an acid-activated geopolymer matrix. The study addresses two significant environmental concerns: the high CO2 emissions associated with Portland cement production and the large energy consumption of buildings for heating and cooling. Lauric acid, a biobased fatty acid PCM, was selected as a by-stander because of its high latent heat capacity and suitable melting temperature facilitating encapsulation and leakage characterization. Lauric acid has been encapsulated inside silica (SiO2) shells using a TEOS-based emulsion process. The resulting microcapsules were then integrated into a phosphate-based acid-activated geopolymer, an environmentally friendly alternative to conventional cement. SEM and EDS confirmed the formation of spherical silica microcapsules containing the PCM, with diameters between 15 and 40 μm. FTIR spectroscopy demonstrated successful silica shell formation and preservation of the lauric acid compound, indicating good chemical compatibility with the geopolymer matrix. Thermal analyses showed that the microcapsules contain 49 wt.% of PCM inside 51 wt.% of silica shell and possessed a latent heat of about 80 J/g. Eventually, 17 wt.% of PCM@SiO2 have been incorporated inside the geopolymer, resulted in a latent heat of 16 J/g, corresponding to approximately 9 wt.% PCM. Leakage tests revealed that the silica shells significantly reduced PCM leakage, although complete sealing was not achieved because of shell porosity. Despite this limitation, the geopolymer composite maintained reversible thermal energy storage behavior and showed promising compatibility between the PCM microcapsules and the acid-activated geopolymer matrix.
Citrus hystrix, a member of the genus Citrus, is a widely recognized plant in VIET NAM with diverse applications in herbal medicine, gastronomy, and cosmetics. However, the anti-inflammatory effect of the essential oil extracted from C. hystrix leaves has not been investigated yet. GC/MS analysis identified 40 chemical constituents in the leaf essential oil (EOL) from C. hystrix, accounting for 97.42 % of the total peak area. The predominant compounds included citronellol (22.28 %), citronellal (17.75 %), linalool (9.53 %), and nerolidol (8.69 %). Molecular docking studies revealed strong binding affinities between these compounds and two key inflammatory mediators, cyclooxygenase-2 and inducible nitric oxide synthase, with binding energies ranging from -5.4 to -7.2 kcal/mol. These findings suggest a moderate anti-inflammatory potential of the EOL. This was further supported by an in vitro cell-based approach, in which EOL demonstrated a moderate inhibitory effect on nitric oxide production at a concentration of 20 μg/mL, resulting in a reduction of 26.79 ± 1.77 %. Furthermore, EOL weakly inhibited heat-induced protein denaturation with an IC50 value of approximately 311.40 ± 30.04 μg/mL. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report to investigate the anti-inflammatory activity of C. hystrix leaf essential oil, providing a foundation for future research into its therapeutic applications for managing inflammatory conditions.
Cold-pressed industrial hemp seed oil (CPCSSO) with a fully characterized physicochemical profile; including fatty acids, sterols and quality indices is a natural regenerative agent due to its high content of essential fatty acids (EFA) and its dominant beta-sitosterol fraction (62.10 %). However, its susceptibility to oxidation (Iodine Value: 157) limits its effectiveness when applied topically. To address this issue, this study is aimed to stabilize CPCSSO through an innovative complex coacervation system using a gelatin/gum Arabic matrix crosslinked with natural transglutaminase (Tgase) and tannic acid (TA). Physicochemical analyses confirmed that CPCSSO retained excellent quality criteria, including low free fatty acid and peroxide values. In vitro biological tests showed that unencapsulated CPCSSO at concentrations as low as 0.12 mg/mL significantly accelerated wound healing achieving highly statistically significant results (48 hours) and increased proliferation of normal human dermal fibroblast cells by 72 %. This demonstrates the oil's substantial potential for skin regeneration, although microencapsulation improved the stability of CPCSSO, the biological activity of the encapsulated CPCSSO decreased. The current findings highlight the effectiveness of CPCSSO in wound healing and suggest that further optimization is necessary for the TGase-TA crosslinking system to serve as a reliable method for the topical delivery of natural bioactive compounds.
This study explores the role of β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) on the aggregation and refolding of hen egg white lysozyme (HEWL) induced by an anionic surfactant, i.e., sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate (SDBS). Different biophysical techniques (Spectrophotometer, Flurometer, and Circular Dichroism) were employed to measure the conformational changes and aggregation propensity. UV-Vis spectroscopy revealed a biphasic turbidity response: initial β-CD concentrations (<0.4 mM) enhanced HEWL aggregation, whereas higher concentrations (>0.4 mM) solubilized the SDBS-induced aggregates, thereby restoring a native-like HEWL structure. Intrinsic fluorescence and circular dichroism analyses indicated that β-CD mitigated SDBS-induced structural disruptions, facilitating HEWL refolding. Thioflavin T assays confirmed the formation of amyloid-like fibrils in the SDBS-HEWL complex, which were solubilized upon addition of higher β-CD concentration, correlating with a decrease in turbidity,the regain of tertiary and secondary structure. Right-angle light scattering kinetic measurements supported these findings, showing rapid aggregate solubilization at higher β-CD concentrations. The study suggests that β-CD forms inclusion complexes with SDBS, thereby reducing its availability to interact with HEWL and mitigating aggregation, while promoting refolding. These findings underscore the potential of β-CD as a chemical chaperone in modulating protein aggregation, with implications for the formulation of therapeutic proteins and the understanding of protein misfolding diseases.
BACKGROUND:Palmitic acid (PA)-driven lipotoxicity in skeletal muscle is associated with excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS) and disturbed mitochondrial dynamics. This study aimed to characterize PA-induced alterations in oxidative status and fusion-fission balance in C2C12 skeletal muscle cells and to test whether N-acetylcysteine (NAC), dichloroacetate (DCA), or metformin mitigate these changes. METHODS:Differentiated C2C12 myotubes were exposed to PA under conditions detailed in the Methods. Intracellular ROS was quantified, antioxidant defenses were assessed by activities of catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and superoxide dismutase (SOD), and mitochondrial dynamics were evaluated by expression of the fusion protein mitofusin 1 (MFN1) and the fission protein dynamin-related protein 1 (DRP1), together with morphological assessment of mitochondrial fragmentation. RESULTS:PA exposure increased ROS and was accompanied by decreases in CAT, GPx, and SOD activities. PA shifted mitochondrial dynamics toward fission, with reduced MFN1, elevated DRP1, and increased mitochondrial fragmentation. Co-treatment with NAC, DCA, or metformin attenuated PA-induced ROS accumulation, improved antioxidant enzyme activities relative to PA alone, and partially normalized MFN1 and DRP1 expression, with reduced fragmentation. CONCLUSIONS:In an in vitro C2C12 model, PA-induced lipotoxicity is associated with oxidative stress and a fusion-fission imbalance favoring mitochondrial fragmentation. NAC, DCA, and metformin mitigate these alterations and help preserve mitochondrial homeostasis. These findings support targeting oxidative stress and mitochondrial dynamics as a potential approach to counteract mitochondrial dysfunction under lipotoxic conditions.
The increasing global demand for renewable and environmentally sustainable energy has positioned biodiesel as an important component of future fuel strategies, particularly in biodiesel-producing countries such as Malaysia and Indonesia. Owing to its favourable properties as a fuel composed primarily of fatty acid methyl esters (FAME), including biodegradability and compatibility with existing diesel infrastructure, biodiesel contrib utes to both environmental protection and energy security. However, maintaining fuel quality during storage remains a significant challenge, especially under warm and humid climate. This review examines the factors contributing to microbial growth in biodiesel and biodiesel-diesel blend storage systems. Key factors include the hygroscopic nature of biodiesel, water accumulation during prolonged storage, temperature conditions and the influence of storage tank materials. These conditions promote microbial growth such as bacteria, fungi and yeasts, leading to biofilm formation, fuel degradation, corrosion and fuel filter clogging. Major challenges identified include long-term storage, inadequate water control and oxidative instability of biodiesel. Mitigation strategies discussed in this review include improved storage tank design and materials, water and temperature management, routine monitoring and maintenance, and the use of additives such as antioxidants, biocides and corrosion inhibitors to minimize microbial contamination and maintain fuel stability.
This study aimed to determine the chemical composition of Thymus hirtus essential oil and to assess its acute toxicity and anti-inflammatory potential. This essential oil extracted by hydrodistillation from the leaves has a yield of 2.08 ± 0.5 %. The identification of its chemical composition was conducted using both GC-FID and GC-MS. Fifty-four constituents were detected, representing 98.53 % of the essential oil's composition. The major constituents were : thymol (48.5 %) and carvacrol (17.75 %). The oral acute toxicity of this essential oil was evaluated in mice by administering single doses ranging from 50 to 2000 mg/kg. The lethal dose (LD50) obtained was equal to 875 mg/kg. The anti-inflammatory activity was assessed using carrageenan-induced paw edema test in mice. A notable reduction of paw edema was obtained at dose of 50 mg/kg (50.9 %) and 100 mg/kg (65.6 %). The reported anti-inflammatory activity represents a significant initial outcome, underscoring the relevance of this work and paving the way for future investigations to validate and extend these findings.
The release of lipid-related volatile compounds influences the sensory quality and stability of oil-containing foods; however, the physicochemical role of dissolved carbon dioxide (CO2) in their partitioning remains unclear. This study examined the effects of dissolved CO2 on the gas-liquid partitioning of representative lipid-related compounds, including fatty acids with carbon chain lengths ranging from C4 to C14, aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, and acetate esters, using simplified aqueous model systems. Headspace concentrations under CO2 were compared with those under nitrogen (N2) at 30-50 °C by solid-phase microextraction coupled with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.Dissolved CO2 modulated gas-phase transfer in a structure- and temperature-dependent manner. The most pronounced differences were observed at 40 °C for medium-chain compounds, particularly C10 species such as decanoic acid and 1-decanol. The CO2/N2 headspace ratio showed a positive correlation with hydrogen-bonding capacity, although this relationship should be interpreted cautiously because other physicochemical properties may also contribute. Control experiments using O2, N2O, air, and pH-adjusted solutions suggested that the observed effects cannot be explained solely by general gas sparging or acidification.These results are consistent with the possibility that dissolved CO2 influences the balance between aqueous solvation and gas-phase partitioning, potentially through weak interactions with the hydrogen-bond network of water. The selective response of medium-chain fatty acids may have implications for understanding flavor release in carbonated and oil-containing food systems.
Human breath volatile metabolites have attracted increasing attention as a source of non-invasive biomarkers. However, the biosynthetic pathways of most breath-borne compounds remain unclear, and their relationships to physiological or pathological states are still poorly defined, which has greatly hindered the clini cal application of breath biomarkers.Ferroptosis is an iron-dependent process driven by lipid peroxidation that exacerbates tissue inflammation and has been implicated in a wide range of age-associated disorders. Importantly, some oxidized lipids generated during ferroptosis are volatile and can be released in exhaled breath. Based on this principle, we have developed a non-invasive strategy for detecting deep-tissue ferroptosis using exhaled volatile oxidized lipids as biomarkers and are advancing this approach toward clinical application. In this review, we will highlight the development of breath markers associated with ferroptosis and discuss the broader potential of breath-based technologies for monitoring disease-related metabolism.
The essential oil of Ageratum conyzoides collected from Dak Lak Province, Vietnam, was investigated for its chemical composition and biological activities. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis identified 26 volatile constituents, accounting for 78.8 % of the total oil content, predominantly composed of monoterpenoids (60.6 %) and sesquiterpenoids (18.2 %). The major components included caryophyllene (15.57 %), sabinene (14.78 %), isomyocorene (3.62 %), eucalyptol (12.46 %), humulene (8.91 %), nerolidol (5.80 %), α-pinene (3.09 %), and 3-carene (3.05 %). The essential oil exhibited notable antioxidant activity in the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay with an IC50 value of 6.03 ± 0.4 mg/mL. In addition, moderate antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli was observed, with an inhibition zone diameter of 27.0 mm at 3.00 mg/mL and a minimum inhibitory concentration of 100 µg/mL. The oil also demonstrated moderate α-glucosidase inhibitory activity with an IC50 value of 415.4 μg/mL. Molecular docking analysis provided only preliminary and hypothesis-generating insights, suggesting that major constituents such as caryophyllene and nerolidol may be associated with the observed activities. However, these in silico results do not provide direct evidence of DNA GyrB or α-glucosidase inhibition by individual compounds. These findings indicate that A. conyzoides essential oil represents a potential natural source of multifunctional bioactive compounds for further pharmacological investigation.
Irinotecan (IRI) is a widely used anticancer agent; however, its clinical use is often associated with severe gastrointestinal toxicity, particularly intestinal inflammation. Rice-derived lipophilic fractions and glucosylceramide (GlcCer), a major plant sphingolipid, exert anti-inflammatory effects in the colon; however, it remains unclear whether these effects extend to the small intestine, the primary site of nutrient absorption. This study investigates the protective effects of dietary GlcCer and rice extract (RE) against IRI-induced jejunal injury in mice. Female ICR mice were fed experimental diets containing GlcCer or RE for 10 days, followed by intraperitoneal administration of IRI for 4 days. Jejunal tissues were evaluated using histopathological analysis and protein array profiling of inflammation-related cytokines and apoptosis-related proteins. IRI treatment induced marked villus atrophy and crypt hypertrophy in the jejunum, accompanied by pronounced increases in inflammation-related cytokine expression levels. Dietary GlcCer substantially attenuated these morphological and inflammatory alterations, whereas apoptosis-associated nuclear changes and cleaved caspase-3 expression were largely unaffected. Dietary RE also modulated inflammatory responses, despite containing lower amounts of GlcCer, suggesting contributions from additional lipophilic components. These findings indicate that dietary GlcCer is a key bioactive constituent that attenuates IRI-induced jejunal inflammation, while leaving jejunal cleaved caspase-3 expression and apoptosis-associated nuclear changes largely unaffected. Thus, dietary GlcCer or rice-derived lipophilic fractions represent candidate nutritional strategies to mitigate local gastrointestinal toxicity associated with IRI chemotherapy.
This study aimed to investigate the protective effects of Naematelia aurantialba ethanol extract (NAAE) against skin photoaging. Furthermore, we sought to elucidate the underlying repair mechanisms and related pathways. The results indicated that NAAE treatment significantly enhanced cell viability and proliferation under UV stress, while exerting potent antioxidant effects by effectively reducing intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation and mitigating oxidative damage. Furthermore, NAAE accelerated the migration capacity of damaged cells and promoted skin repair. In animal models, NAAE inhibited UV-induced skin injuries in a concentration-dependent manner and facilitated tissue regeneration. Further investigations revealed that NAAE exerted photoprotective effects by modulating several key metabolic pathways and biological processes, including fatty acid metabolism and nuclear receptor activity. Moreover, NAAE positively influenced the skin microbiota by reducing the abundance of harmful bacteria and promoting the proliferation of beneficial bacteria, potentially enhancing skin barrier function through the cross-system mechanism of the "gut-skin axis." This study provides a theoretical basis for the use of NAAE in preventing and repairing skin photoaging and offers new insights for the development of natural plant-derived skincare products.
Persimmon (Diospyros kaki) leaf tea is a traditional beverage rich in polyphenols and has been associated with various health benefits; however, its potential to inhibit dietary lipid digestion remains to be fully elucidated. This study evaluated the pancreatic lipase-inhibitory effect of hot-water extracts of persimmon leaves (persimmon leaf tea) using both a synthetic substrate (p-nitrophenyl palmitate, pNPP) and a physiologically relevant triacylglycerol substrate in an oil-in-water emulsion system. Persimmon leaf tea exhibited concentration-dependent inhibition in both assays, indicating lipase-inhibitory effects against both synthetic and physiologically relevant lipid substrates. The pNPP assay was therefore used for subsequent evaluations. High-performance liquid chromatography analysis identified astragalin and isoquercitrin as the predominant flavonol glycosides in the tea. Astragalin and isoquercitrin individually inhibited porcine pancreatic lipase activity in a concentration-dependent manner. Astragalin exhibited a slightly stronger lipase-inhibitory effect than isoquercitrin. When the two compounds were combined at concentrations corresponding to those in persimmon leaf tea, the mixture produced stronger inhibition than the tea itself, suggesting that matrix components may modulate flavonoid activity. Removal of polyphenols by polyvinylpolypyrrolidone treatment markedly reduced lipase-inhibitory effect and reconstitution with the two flavonoids substantially restored the effect, demonstrating that polyphenolic compounds are major contributors to the effect, although they may not fully account for the total inhibition. Although the tea exhibited lower maximal inhibition than the combined authentic standards, this difference is likely attributable to matrix effects from other constituents present in the tea. Compared with the pharmaceutical inhibitor orlistat, persimmon leaf tea showed milder inhibition, with IC50 values several hundred times higher, which may be advantageous for long-term dietary use. These findings indicate that persimmon leaf tea suppresses lipid digestion through the combined actions of its major flavonoids and suggest its potential as a functional beverage for moderating dietary fat absorption.
