Gunther von Hagens, who died on July 24, 2026, was a controversial figure whose influence on anatomy extends well beyond the Body Worlds exhibitions of plastinated human tissues for which he became internationally known. His work raised the public profile of anatomy, though it generated significant debate. Much of the academic discussion of his work has focused on ethical concerns surrounding the sourcing and display of plastinated human tissues, as well as his decision to undertake public dissection of a donor. These issues remain important, but they can obscure the extent to which his innovations using plastination techniques changed the possibilities for preserving and teaching human anatomy. Plastinated specimens are now used in anatomy education and research in institutions around the world, providing durable and transportable educational resources while also extending access to anatomical specimens. Von Hagens also had an unintended influence on the development of ethics in anatomy, whereby the controversy surrounding his work brought anatomy into public and academic discussions, prompting ongoing discourse around the ethical boundaries of working with human tissues. Because of these multiple influences, any legacy attached to von Hagens' remains difficult to balance. The anatomy community should recognize the significance of his contribution while continuing to examine the ethical questions that accompanied it.
In contemporary anatomy and histology education, students increasingly gain access to large image repositories and advanced imaging technologies, yet explicit instruction in morphological reasoning often remains implicit. As a result, learners may become proficient at recognizing structures while lacking the interpretative skills needed to describe visual evidence, relate form to function, and generate scientifically meaningful questions from images. This discursive article presents an educational framework that makes morphological reasoning explicit within laboratory-based training. Developed in the MorphoLAB training environment, the approach integrates anatomy, histology, and imaging-based observation across health sciences curricula and within an active research workflow. Rather than prioritizing technical proficiency as an endpoint, the model foregrounds the cognitive processes and identity formation that underpin expert interpretation. At its core are 10 guiding principles-the "Ten Rules of the Morphologist"-which provide a shared vocabulary for observation, description, interpretation, integration, and critical questioning. The rules are introduced early and reinforced through structured image observation, reflective notebook practices, and guided dialog that externalizes expert reasoning. Reflective observations from routine supervision suggest that this explicit focus supports more precise descriptive language, greater interpretative autonomy, and increased tolerance for ambiguity in complex images. By shifting attention from technique-centered instruction to the cultivation of a morphological mindset, the framework offers a transferable, low-burden strategy for educators seeking to strengthen students' capacity to think with images in an educational landscape increasingly shaped by digital imaging and artificial intelligence.
Anatomical knowledge underpins clinical skills and professional identity in physiotherapy. However, dedicated teaching has declined in recent years. Body donor-based learning, though common in medical education, is rarely used in physiotherapy. Its integration may enhance learning through embodied, haptic experiences, and greater physical and emotional engagement with anatomical structures. A qualitative methodology grounded in phenomenology and hermeneutics was employed, using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) to explore how final-year BSc (Hons) Physiotherapy students made sense of their experiences of learning anatomy through haptic interaction with body donors facilitated by a supersoft-fix preservation technique. This study provides a novel perspective of the impact of learning anatomy through body donors and prosections for physiotherapy students. While learning anatomy with body donors affords students deep and embodied haptic learning opportunities, there are emotional aspects, which physiotherapy educators must consider. These emotional aspects can influence how students perceive the humanity or non-humanity of body donors. Soft-fixation embalming techniques permit students to mobilize joints and observe dynamic functional movement, which enhances students' anatomical understanding. However, educators must consider the variable and complex nature of how physiotherapy students view and interact with body donors and the potential influence on these experiences toward developing their professional identity. Re-humanizing anatomy is a dynamic learning process where students describe moving within a "Body Donor Learning Continuum" (BDLC) where, over time and through reflection, they experience a spectrum of negative to positive emotions and reactions.
Neuroanatomy is challenging, requiring multiple external representations (MER) for comprehension. While studies have examined individual representations of neuroanatomy, a gap remains in understanding how students link across MER, especially between technology-generated representations with everyday experiences. We describe a pilot intervention exploring college students' interactions with MER within a brain anatomy unit, focusing on coordination across representations to support conceptual understanding. The unit featured an apple-slicing task as a proxy for sectional anatomy and used 3D Slicer software to explore 2D MRI slices alongside 3D reconstructed brain structures. It was piloted with five physical therapy students enrolled in a Neurosciences course in the southeastern U.S. Data collection included pre/post-tests, audio-video recordings of the implementation, and semi-structured interviews. Thematic analysis, supplemented by video recordings, was conducted to identify instances of representational interlocking and conceptual development. Patterns observed across the pre/post-test responses and qualitative data provided insight into areas of conceptual development while also highlighting areas of uncertainty. Emergent themes indicated that everyday representations (e.g., apple-slicing) functioned as conceptual scaffolds for clarifying terminology and initial sensemaking. Coordination across 2D and 3D representations supported a shift from basic identification toward deeper conceptual understanding. The findings also highlighted the role of instructional guidance in supporting students' navigation across representations. These findings align with prior research on the pedagogical functions of MERs, emphasizing their role in complementing information, constraining interpretations, promoting deeper understanding, and revealing knowledge gaps. They support the value of MER in neuroanatomy education and the need for scaffolding to support representational linking.
Neurosurgical residency training requires advanced spatial cognition and 3D anatomical understanding, which traditional methods often fail to adequately develop. This study evaluated a novel educational model integrating 3D Slicer and 3D printing technology to enhance imaging spatial cognition and clinical reasoning among neurosurgery residents. In a self-controlled before- and after-trial, 25 neurosurgery residents completed a 12-week training program involving 3D Slicer reconstruction and 3D printing of clinical cases. Core competencies were assessed at baseline (T0) and post-intervention (T1) through theoretical tests, spatial anatomical recognition tasks, and clinical case analysis. Subjective feedback was collected via a structured survey. Participants showed significant improvements in all assessment domains (p < 0.001). Spatial anatomical recognition scores increased by 16.96 points (from 67.12 to 84.08), clinical case analysis by 13.10 points (from 69.94 to 83.04), and theoretical knowledge by 12.32 points (from 72.32 to 84.64). Subjective evaluations indicated that 100% of residents reported moderate or significant improvement in 3D anatomical comprehension, spatial visualization, preoperative planning confidence, and proactive problem-solving. The integrated 3D Slicer and 3D printing training model effectively enhances spatial cognition, clinical reasoning, and active learning in neurosurgical education. It offers a scalable, clinically relevant approach to bridging the gap between 2D imaging interpretation and 3D surgical planning, supporting the transition from training to independent practice.
Donor-based dissection has become increasingly contested in modern medical curricula as digital anatomy platforms, simulation technologies, virtual dissection tables, three-dimensional reconstructions, and artificial intelligence-supported learning have expanded. Reduced curricular time and logistical constraints have encouraged some institutions to reduce or replace dissection-based anatomy teaching. This shift raises a central educational question: What does dissection contribute to anatomy learning that cannot be reproduced by other methods? This article examines donor-based dissection from an anatomy-education perspective. It argues that its value should not rest on tradition, nor be judged solely by examination performance. Its educational significance lies in the multiple dimensions of learning it uniquely supports: three-dimensional spatial reasoning, recognition of anatomical variation, tactile and manual understanding of tissue planes, regional and topographical orientation, integration of structure with clinical relevance, and the development of professional identity and donor respect. Digital anatomy and artificial intelligence can enrich anatomy teaching by improving visualization, accessibility, and repetition. However, these tools present anatomy in a standardized, cleaned, and immediately visible form. Donor-based dissection exposes students to the body as layered, variable, and sometimes ambiguous-an encounter that cannot be fully replicated digitally. A six-phase hybrid model grounded in experiential learning theory is proposed: digital pre-laboratory orientation, donor-based or prosection-based exploration, imaging correlation, clinical case reasoning, guided professional reflection, and post-laboratory digital consolidation. In this framework, digital tools prepare and reinforce learning while dissection remains the central embodied experience. Donor-based dissection therefore remains indispensable as a carefully structured component of an integrated anatomy curriculum.
Virtual reality (VR) offers new possibilities for anatomy education through immersive and embodied interaction. Early-stage evaluation of VR tools is necessary to assess user experience and perceived cognitive load and to guide iterative development. This pilot study aimed to descriptively evaluate the first prototype of the inCarne VR functional anatomy tool and explore the suitability of an adapted cognitive load questionnaire in this context. Seventeen participants, including kinesiology students and anatomy experts, completed a 15-min guided VR session involving real-time body tracking and skeletal mirroring of hip movements. User experience was assessed using the AttrakDiff questionnaire, measuring pragmatic quality, hedonic quality, and attractiveness. Perceived cognitive load was assessed using an adapted French version of the Leppink Cognitive Load Questionnaire. Analyses focused on descriptive statistics, internal consistency, and exploratory correlation coefficients. User experience ratings were descriptively positive across all dimensions, with attractiveness showing the highest mean score (M = 1.71, SD = 0.59). Intrinsic cognitive load was reported as low (M = 1.54, SD = 1.42), while germane load was higher (M = 4.26, SD = 2.95), indicating reported engagement in task-related cognitive processing. Intrinsic and germane load demonstrated acceptable internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.834-0.950), whereas extraneous load showed low internal consistency (α = 0.283), limiting its interpretability. Exploratory correlations showed moderate to strong descriptive associations between selected user experience and cognitive load dimensions. These findings provide preliminary descriptive evidence supporting the feasibility of the inCarne prototype and inform future development and measurement validation in VR anatomy education.
Currently, there are no consensus standards for the selection of two-dimensional (2D) anatomical images that form the basis of anatomy education. The absence of standardized evaluation criteria may contribute to variability in image quality and inconsistencies in the educational use of anatomical visuals, potentially affecting students' development of an accurate understanding of anatomy. Addressing this gap is important for supporting the reliable and educationally effective use of 2D anatomical images in undergraduate medical education. An initial pool of 70 candidate criteria was generated through literature review and expert input and organized into seven domains. A modified two-round Delphi process was conducted. In Round 1 (n = 20), experts rated each criterion on a five-point scale. Domain-specific cut-off values were applied, and the item-level content validity index (I-CVI) was calculated. In Round 2 (n = 15), experts reviewed domain appropriateness and item wording. Thirty-four criteria met predefined thresholds and were retained. The scale-level content validity index was high (S-CVI/Ave = 0.94). In Round 2, mean agreement on domain appropriateness was 97.8%, and 90.2% of items were retained without modification. Modified kappa analysis demonstrated excellent agreement beyond chance (mean k* = 0.93). No new criteria were proposed. This study developed a 34-item, expert-validated checklist for evaluating static 2D anatomical images. The high consensus levels support its potential utility in improving the quality, consistency, and educational relevance of visual materials used in anatomy education.
Carlton George Smith, M.Sc., M.D., Ph.D., R.C.N.V.R. (1905-2003) was a Canadian anatomist and professor at the University of Toronto. He was highly regarded as an outstanding teacher, cutting-edge neuroscience researcher, and accomplished author. Dr. Smith became a member of the AAA in 1938 and joined the prestigious Cajal Club in 1950. In 1942, he joined the Naval Medical Research Unit in Halifax, eventually becoming its Commanding Officer, where he assisted with landmark research related to naval and military operational barriers during World War II. This research further bolstered his interests in the neuroanatomical bases of the special senses. Dr. Smith pioneered 3-dimensional (3D) teaching of neuroanatomy long before the era of technological advancement, using geometrical forms to describe the anatomical relationships between pathways and structures of the central nervous system. His innovative and evidence-based approaches, based on meticulous dissections, providing the foundation for both simple line drawings and detailed illustrations that were incorporated into several neuroanatomy books. He later developed a series of plaster models with his wife, Marguerite "Rita" Harland Smith, that highlight the complex 3D relationships of the human brain, head, and neck. Dr. Smith and Rita's legacy lives on through the models he donated to medical schools across Canada and at the University of Toronto through the endowment of scholarships and lectures. This article will include notable milestones in Dr. Smith's life with an emphasis on his scholarly and educational contributions to the field of neuroanatomy.
Contact hour reduction and elimination of dissection in gross anatomy in the increasingly systems-based curricula have reshaped medical education in the United States. While prosection-based anatomical instruction enhances efficiency, regional dissection protocols may no longer be optimally aligned with systems-based curricula. Clinical autopsy protocols may provide an alternative approach that aligns with contemporary medical education needs. The Modified Autopsy Prosection Protocol (MAPP), derived from clinical autopsy procedures, was developed and implemented in a systems-based medical curriculum. MAPP integrated structured external exam, modified Y-incision, en masse viscera removal, preservation of body wall and pelvic floor anatomy, and systemic separation of organ blocs. Students encountered the MAPP donors throughout the year with clinically framed external examination and engagement using a flipped laboratory approach. The MAPP preserved inter-systemic anatomical relationships, enhanced clinical relevance, supported spaced and interleaved learning, and enabled customization based on donor variation and pathology. Challenges included increased resource demands, the need for faculty expertise, and enhanced donor care to preserve tissue integrity throughout prolonged curricular use. Despite the challenges, MAPP simultaneously accommodated the reduction of contact hours and demonstrated strong alignment with the clinically oriented, integrated medical curriculum. Implementation provided meaningful early exposure to autopsy techniques, with potential implications for interest in pathology training. MAPP is a novel, clinically oriented approach to gross anatomy prosection that supports pedagogical, temporal, and clinical demands of modern systems-based curricula. While resource intensive, it is a promising model. Ongoing analyses will continue to evaluate its short- and long-term educational impact.
The use of different coaching models can provide an effective environment for skill learning. The Anatomical Donor Stewardship (ADS) Coaching subcommittee, within the Human Anatomy and Physiology Society (HAPS), developed and held an inaugural Coaching workshop for human anatomical dissection for HAPS members at the 2025 HAPS Annual Conference in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. This article describes the workshop, as well as impact statements from the coaches. Based on the reception of this model, future coaching workshops should be developed to meet the needs of anatomists at all levels, with support from professional societies.
Teaching introductory or foundation level concepts about anatomy and physiology of the nervous system to undergraduate students presents a conundrum for educators-how to provide students with sufficient knowledge for a successful learning experience and outcome without overwhelming students and impacting student progression and retention. We surveyed neuroscience educators to investigate which introductory concepts are currently being taught and assessed in introductory or foundation level courses, and the perceived importance of each concept. The study involved an anonymous survey containing a list of concepts drawn from a validated and published set of neuroscience core concepts and sub-concepts. Seventy-six neuroscience educators who currently teach introductory nervous system content in Australian undergraduate courses completed the survey. Concepts that were taught by many survey respondents were those associated with intra- and intercellular communication and maintenance of homeostasis. Few respondents reported teaching students about evolution and genes. The concepts that were frequently taught had a higher rating of importance and summative assessment than concepts that were infrequently taught. Thematic analysis revealed insufficient coverage of neuroanatomical concepts (19/29 responses; 66%). The survey results provide an overview of the type and perceived importance of introductory or foundation level nervous system concepts that are currently being taught to undergraduate students in Australian health and science degrees. The identified concepts enable neuroscience educators to evaluate, map, and compare the learning outcomes and content in their course to inform curriculum development and improvement in the student learning experience and outcomes.
Histology is a visually complex and cognitively demanding subject often perceived as abstract, memorization-heavy, and disconnected from clinical practice. Despite its foundational importance, histology is frequently under-emphasized relative to gross anatomy and lacks interactive, multimodal resources tailored to its unique challenges. This study explored student-identified barriers to learning histology and evaluated the perceived value of coloring as a supplemental learning strategy. An online mixed-methods survey was distributed to individuals with histology learning experience. Respondents answered questions about educational level, learning challenges and strategies, and prior use of coloring books. Quantitative data were analyzed descriptively, and open-ended responses were thematically coded. Findings were interpreted alongside cognitive learning theories and accessibility frameworks. Most participants were enrolled in professional (53.7%) or graduate (26.7%) programs. While 91.7% of respondents found histology enjoyable or somewhat enjoyable. Many respondents reported difficulties distinguishing connective, nervous, and epithelial tissues. Common challenges included abstract content, inconsistent staining, and poor structure-function integration. Some respondents had previously used educational coloring books in other disciplines and reported the act of coloring as moderately to extremely effective for their learning. Respondents valued labeled diagrams, repetition, and guided prompts, and suggested including quiz-style activities with closer alignment to course content. Survey results support coloring as an engaging, multimodal teaching strategy that accommodates diverse learning needs. At the time of this study, a histology coloring book was in the process of development. Future work will evaluate its effectiveness in improving comprehension, accessibility, and learner performance in histology education.
Providing students with a way to honor human body donors during or after an anatomy course has been shown to help provide a sense of closure and comfort to students and, when present, donor families. Gestures of gratitude for donors can also emphasize humanistic values of respect, empathy, and professionalism. These tributes can take the form of a ceremony; class activities such as a moment of silence or reflection assignment; the display of a memorial plaque, website, plant, or garden; or other similar gestures. While hosting memorial ceremonies for donors has become common practice for many body donation programs and larger medical institutions, many institutions still do not hold ceremonies because faculty do not know where to start, are deterred by the increased workload, or for other personal or administrative reasons. This handbook was created by members of the Human Anatomy and Physiology Society (HAPS) Anatomical Donor Stewardship (ADS) Ethics Subcommittee to provide guidance to anatomy educators and staff who are developing inaugural ceremonies or memorials, or who are seeking new ideas to enhance their established event or memorial.
Neuroanatomy has been considered one of the most challenging subjects in medical education, often leading to "neurophobia" and discouraging students from pursuing neurological specialties. At PKUHSC, the curriculum has evolved from a traditional, discipline-based model to a technology-enhanced, integrated "Nervous System" module for approximately 176 second-year preclinical students annually. This reform integrates several innovations: (1) a blended instructional model combining lectures, hands-on laboratory sessions, team-based learning (TBL), and case-based learning (CBL); (2) technological integration of virtual reality (VR), diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), and 3D-assisted teaching based on real specimens, allowing interactive exploration of high-resolution digitized anatomical structures while preserving the authenticity of cadaveric materials; (3) integration of a knowledge graph and artificial intelligence (AI)-powered formative assessments. Preliminary evaluation data demonstrated positive impacts. On the 3D real-specimen scanning platform, 100% of students agreed that the models helped them understand complex spatial relationships, and over 95% reported increased learning confidence. Student surveys (n = 176) indicated that the smart course platform improved anatomy understanding and was positively correlated with test performance (β = 1.24, p < 0.001). Students who completed three adaptive practice sessions achieved significantly higher scores (9.12 ± 0.98) than non-users (7.12 ± 2.41, p < 0.001), with the proportion of high scorers (≥9) increasing from 24.0% to 83.1%. Overall, a theoretically grounded, technology-enhanced, and clinically integrated curriculum significantly improves learning outcomes. Key transferable lessons include using hybrid models that complement rather than replace traditional dissection and embedding formative assessment with data analytics. Our experience offers a reproducible roadway for modernizing neuroanatomy education across diverse medical education settings.
Provenance is at the center of addressing the complicated ethical stewardship of legacy human skeletal collections. Many South African (SA) health science institutions have skeletal collections. While the history of the collections and the demographics of the skeletons have been reported, the provenance of the individuals within the collections, a key factor in ethical practice, has yet to be fully explored. The aim of this study was to investigate the provenance and demographics of the individuals housed in the modern human skeletal collections of South African anatomy departments to ensure their ethical stewardship. The provenance and demographic data (sex, age at death, year of death, and population affinity) of individuals housed in five modern human skeletal collections in SA health sciences institutions were collected. Descriptive statistics were applied to the data to derive frequencies, percentages, and means (SD). The majority of skeletons (83%; n = 3734) in the collections surveyed have been sourced from unclaimed individuals. For those institutions where population affinity was provided, SA Black individuals comprised 71% (n = 2586) of the unclaimed group. Skeletons from bequests were low (15%; n = 683), of which 99% (n = 452) were SA White, older individuals. Male individuals comprised 71% (n = 3196) of the collections. The high number of skeletons from unclaimed bodies in these collections highlights the challenge of ethical stewardship facing curators and institutions housing these collections. The continued use of these collections requires sustained discourse, policy development, and legislative oversight to facilitate the ethical treatment of the individuals within the collections.
Students' first encounters with animal body donors in higher education are a formative and also potentially stressful experience. The complex emotions elicited by body donor use in learning and their effects on professional development have been documented in medical students, but are far less explored in veterinary medical counterparts. In this study, we investigated student emotional responses to animal body donors and the anatomy laboratory in 164 first-year students from three UK veterinary schools. We found that many students feel positive emotions regarding their first body donor encounter, but that it can be a source of negative emotion, too. In particular, performing dissection and the use of whole, recognisable animals prompted significantly more students to report negative emotions (9% and 13% of participants respectively) compared with other class formats and specimen types (p < 0.02). As the first year course progressed, students felt generally positive about encountering body donors. Many students report their feelings surrounding body donor use changed after one (10%) or several classes (35%), whilst others reported that their feelings did not change much (43%). Almost all students felt the use of body donors enhanced their learning, with impacts on academic, practical, and interpersonal benefits cited. Whilst the picture of students' first body donor encounter in veterinary education is generally positive, the findings from this study enable us to suggest interventions that may assist in creating positive, intentional, and inclusive learning environments where animal body donors form an important part of curriculum delivery.
Histology education has traditionally relied on light microscopy and lectures, but recent advances have introduced technology-assisted learning (TAL) modalities such as virtual microscopy, flipped classrooms, and blended learning. While increasingly adopted, evidence of their effectiveness remains fragmented. To evaluate the effectiveness of TAL compared with traditional methods in histology education, focusing on academic performance, student satisfaction, and practical skills, and to explore moderators including technology type, study design, and risk of bias. A systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted following PRISMA guidelines. Ten studies (n = 1445) from six countries published between 2019 and 2025 were included, encompassing randomized controlled trials (RCTs), quasiexperimental, and cross-sectional designs. Standardized mean differences (SMD) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) were calculated using random-effects models. Subgroup and sensitivity analyses explored heterogeneity, and publication bias was assessed. TAL was associated with a large improvement in academic performance (SMD = 1.04, 95% CI: 0.48-1.60, p < 0.001), equivalent to roughly one standard deviation higher scores compared with traditional methods. Student satisfaction was high (pooled mean 79.9%), with blended learning achieving the highest ratings (>95%). Practical skills also favored TAL (SMD = 0.52, 95% CI: 0.09-0.95, p = 0.003). Subgroup analyses indicated flipped classrooms and blended learning produced the largest gains, while RCTs showed stronger effects than cross-sectional studies. TAL significantly improves academic outcomes, satisfaction, and practical skills in histology education. Virtual microscopy, flipped classrooms, and blended learning provide complementary advantages, though effectiveness depends on thoughtful curricular integration and technical support.
Musculoskeletal anatomy is a critical component of allied health curricula. With the ubiquity of technology in the classroom and the recent COVID-19 pandemic creating accessibility barriers for students, there is a need for viable digital resources to enhance learning by supplementing traditional textbook studying. This article describes the creation of an annotated, interactive, three-dimensional digital model and presents preliminary data on its effectiveness for students learning musculoskeletal structures of the hip and knee for the first time. The 3D model was developed in Blender using open-source files and was uploaded to the Sketchfab platform. Eighty-one students in the musculoskeletal anatomy course at a large midwestern university took an assessment to measure their baseline anatomical knowledge, studied the testable structures from either the model or textbook images for 10 min, and took a follow-up assessment. Students in the 3D Model Group saw greater increases from their baseline scores and also reported higher confidence in what they had learned, increased ability to visualize anatomical structures, and greater enjoyment of their resource than students who used textbook images. The findings presented here suggest that creating effective, accessible 3D digital resources is feasible for educators without training in technology-related fields and that having access to these resources can be beneficial to first-time learners of anatomy.
