Abstract Conversion of biomass-derived materials into sustainable chemical feedstocks represents a critical research challenge that has attracted global attention. In this study, we have successfully developed a novel photocatalytic system that generates organic peroxides from glucose under visible-light irradiation using a palladium-loaded tungsten oxide (Pd/WO3) photocatalyst. Mechanistic analysis revealed that the reaction proceeds through a two-step process: photocatalytic generation of H2O2 and organic acids, followed by their catalytic conversion to organic peroxides. The Pd/WO3 photocatalyst demonstrated significantly higher activity compared to unmodified WO3. The loaded Pd nanoparticles were found to promote charge separation, enhancing the production of H2O2 and organic acids, while the WO3 substrate functioned as a catalyst for organic peroxide formation. The generated organic peroxide solution exhibited antimicrobial effects against Escherichia coli and demonstrated activity against Bacillus subtilis spores, which are typically resistant to conventional disinfectants such as ethanol. This study presents an environmentally friendly approach for manufacturing high-performance disinfectants from biomass resources using visible-light-driven photocatalytic processes.
Abstract Traditional bamboo bonding processes face challenges such as formaldehyde emissions, procedural complexity, and high costs. This study proposed a strategy for in situ reconstruction of bamboo cell walls using a polyol/alkali system to achieve bamboo bonding. First, an aqueous NaOH coating selectively dissolved partial hemicellulose from bamboo, increasing cell wall porosity and releasing abundant hydroxyl groups. The subsequent application of polyol reagents (glycerol and PEG400) to bamboo surfaces initiated the melting and reconstruction of the cell wall through hot-pressing. In situ real-time observations demonstrated that self-bonding interfaces are formed through both cell wall contact fusion and molten material filling. The resulting bonding interface relies on physical interlocking induced by cell wall reconstruction, C–C covalent bonds formed by aromatic units in bamboo lignin, and hydrogen bonding generated by hydroxyl groups. Under this bamboo self-bonding strategy, the dry and wet bonding strengths reach 7.12 and 6.45 MPa, respectively. The modulus of rupture and modulus of elasticity of the laminated bamboo lumber are 125.69 MPa and 18.55 GPa, respectively. The polyol/alkali bamboo self-bonding system features low-cost reagents, operational simplicity, formaldehyde-free, and excellent mechanical performance, which offers a sustainable alternative for the fabrication of furniture and building materials.
Abstract α-Pinene is a biologically active monoterpene compound derived from coniferous plants, performing multiple ecological and physiological functions. Moreover, its strained bicyclic skeleton makes it an exceptional renewable feedstock for high-density renewable fuels. However, the extraction of α-pinene from plants is a time-consuming and laborious process. Microbial cell factories offer a green, low-carbon, and tightly controllable route for producing α-pinene. Despite this, low biosynthetic efficiency limits the industrial production of α-pinene by microbial cells. In this study, we first demonstrated that SGE1, a transporter enhancing pinene synthesis, functions within the amino acid metabolic network, with its overexpression primarily promoting the synthesis and utilization of arginine and lysine. To enhance α-pinene synthesis, the Pt30S122N mutant was obtained, resulting in a 34.4% increase in α-pinene yield. Differential expression analysis between isopropyl myristate (IPM)-supplemented and IPM-free engineered strains identified AGP1, an amino acid transporter that enhances production in pinene engineered strains, with α-pinene titers increasing by up to 14% upon its overexpression. Ultimately, diploid fusion further boosted production by 88.5% over the haploid counterpart in a 5-L bioreactor, achieving the highest yeast titer reported to date of 3.9 g/L. This study establishes a platform for the microbial industrial production of α-pinene.
Abstract Deep eutectic solvents (DES) represent a highly promising, greener, and more sustainable alternative for extracting active compounds from medicinal plants. In this study, a novel and sustainable supramolecular deep eutectic solvent (SUPRADES) was synthesized for the first time, and the SUPRADES-based vortex-assisted extraction (SUPRADES-VAE) technique was established. Combined with high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), this method was successfully applied to the analysis of five active components from Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels (AS). The results show that the SUPRADES based on ethylene glycol, DL-lactic acid, and β-cyclodextrin (5:1:3.5 wt %) exhibited the best extraction performance. The optimal extraction conditions were determined by single-factor experiment and response surface methodology (RSM). Under optimal conditions, the total extraction yield of the five active components reached 81.61 mg/g, with extraction efficiencies 1.13–3.33 times higher than those obtained with traditional solvents, including water, ethanol, 70% ethanol, methanol, 70% methanol, and conventional DES. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to investigate the morphological changes of AS powder extracted by SUPRADES and density functional theory (DFT) was employed to investigate the interactions between SUPRADES and the active components during the extraction process. The active components extracted by the SUPRADES-VAE method exhibited relatively strong antioxidant activity compared with the tested conventional solvents. The developed method offers a potential green and efficient approach for extracting active compounds from medicinal plants, with further optimization needed to enhance its sustainability.
Abstract Aqueous electrochemical anodic exfoliation offers a promising route for scalable graphene production owing to its environmental friendliness and green nature. However, carbon corrosion causes substantial carbon loss, hindering its practical application. Herein, a custom-designed electrolyzer with the physically isolated anode and cathode was developed to enable unambiguous tracking of carbon corrosion pathways. Through combined experimental and theoretical investigations, a multi-pathway carbon corrosion mechanism is revealed. The total carbon loss rate increases with decreasing voltage or increasing temperature, reaching 54% at 15 V and 70 °C, with low graphene selectivity (7.0%) and yield (5.7%). Notably, carbon corrosion primarily yields CO2 and CO, accounting for up to 89% of total carbon loss with a CO2:CO volume ratio of 7.4–9.7:1, along with minor hydrocarbon and soluble organic species. ·OH radicals, coexisting with SO4·–, serve as the key active species driving carbon oxidation. DFT calculations reveal that the ·OH-mediated oxidation of edge carbon exhibits a lower energy barrier via hydroxylation–oxidation–cleavage to form CO/CO2 than that of in-plane defective carbon, accompanied by more significant charge transfer and electronic structure modulation after hydroxyl adsorption. This work elucidates the multi-pathway carbon corrosion mechanism and provides insights for minimizing carbon loss in sustainable graphene production by electrochemical exfoliation.
Abstract Anaerobic digestion (AD) of lipid-rich food waste (FW) is frequently destabilized by long-chain fatty acids (LCFAs) toxicity and persistent foaming. Here, nitrogen and oxygen nanobubbles (N2-NBs and O2-NBs) were compared under identical generation and dosing conditions in 80-day biomethane potential assays. The comparison integrated fatty acids (FAs) methanation assays, targeted volatile- and medium-chain fatty-acid profiling, electrochemical characterization, and aminophenyl fluorescein measurements of reactive oxygen species (ROS)-associated oxidant signals. N2-NBs produced the highest methane yield (718.6 NmL/g-VS, 30% higher than the deionized-water control) during AD of lipid-rich FW and decreased the maximum transient medium-chain fatty acids (MCFAs) concentration by 44.4%. N2-NBs also yielded the highest capacitance, electron-accepting capacity, electron-donating capacity, and total electron-transfer capacity of the sludge in the AD, consistent with greater extracellular redox capacity and improved FAs conversion. O2-NBs exhibited the highest reactive oxidant signal and the strongest apparent foam mitigation, suggesting a possible contribution of oxidative interfacial processes to foam destabilization. N2-NBs-focused omics further revealed coordinated enrichment of hydrolytic/fermentative bacteria, methanogens, and lipid- and redox-related functions, alongside metabolite patterns indicative of reduced persistence of inhibitory FAs intermediates. Overall, N2-NBs enhanced methane recovery and redox capacity, whereas O2-NBs improved foam control, supporting gas-core-specific optimization of lipid-rich AD.
Abstract To address the health hazards posed by the BPA epoxy resins traditionally used in carbon fiber reinforced polymers (CFRP), a high-performance and recyclable epoxy resin (EP) was developed by integrating two bio-based components—phenolic compounds from straw tar (ST) and lignin (LI)—with a flexible long-chain curing agent, decenyl succinic anhydride (DA): i) rigid conjugated benzene rings and ii) flexible long-chain fatty acids. Thanks to the combination of rigid structures and flexible chains, the EP achieved a record tensile strength of 104.1 MPa, which far exceeds most reported in the literature. After thermal aging at 100 °C and UV irradiation for 7 days, the tensile strength retention rate reached 95.8%. Furthermore, a new strategy combining mechanical interlocking and interpenetrating network at the interface was proposed. By synergistically modifying carbon fibers (CF) with ultrasonic cavitation treatment (UCT) and aqueous sizing agents (SA), the composite materials saw a 55.8% increase in tensile strength and a 131.5% increase in shear strength. This material can be applied in drone wings and lightweight automotive structural components. Additionally, the material can be recycled, and the regenerated resin can bond with various substrates. Therefore, this study developed environmentally friendly thermosetting resins and carbon fiber reinforced composites by constructing a bio-based covalent network that balances rigidity and flexibility.
Abstract The development of natural polymeric foams to address environmental issues associated with petroleum-derived polymeric foams, including white pollution, microplastic accumulation, and high carbon emissions, has attracted increasing attention. However, natural polymer-based foams are limited by structural instability during drying and insufficient mechanical robustness, while their inherent flammability further restricts practical applications. Herein, inspired by the hierarchical “vein–mesophyll” architecture of plant leaves, we report an all-natural foam fabricated via a scalable ambient-pressure drying (APD) strategy using bamboo fibers (BF), sodium alginate (SA), and montmorillonite (MMT). This system integrates a load-bearing fibrous skeleton (BF), a continuous polymer matrix (SA), and a nanoscale “brick–mortar” reinforcement (MMT) into a cross-scale synergistic architecture, enabling efficient stress redistribution and capillary-force dissipation during drying. Consequently, the foam achieves ultralow shrinkage (5.71%), low density (47.1 mg cm–3), high compressive modulus (13.3 MPa), and low thermal conductivity (0.032 W m–1 K–1). In addition, the synergistic interaction between SA and MMT promotes the formation of a compact and stable char layer, imparting excellent flame retardancy. This processing strategy also endows the material with biodegradability, recyclability, low cost, and a reduced carbon footprint. This work provides a viable pathway and design paradigm toward high-performance and sustainable foam materials.
Abstract The development of high-performance biphasic absorbents is limited by empirical screening and the difficulty of balancing CO2 capacity, phase behavior, and regeneration energy. Here, the molecular polarity index (MPI), a descriptor of molecular surface polarity, is exploited to rationalize and shortlist physical solvents according to their compatibility with the polar species generated upon CO2 absorption. Built around 1-(2-aminoethyl) piperazine (AEP) as the reactive amine, a quaternary formulation incorporating ethylene glycol, dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), and diethylene glycol diethyl ether (DGDE) was assembled. MPI analysis showed that the polarity gap between DGDE and the highly polar carbamate/protonated-amine products drives phase splitting, whereas DMSO tunes the local polarity to retain the ionic products within a compact-rich phase. The optimized absorbent confined the rich phase to ∼53% of the total volume, concentrated over 96% of captured CO2 therein, and reached a loading of 0.58 mol/mol. 13C NMR confirmed that DMSO partitions chiefly into the lean phase, shielding it from thermal regeneration. Consequently, the regeneration duty dropped to 1.72 GJ/t CO2, while the absorption rate rose to 25.2 mmol/(m2·s), 2.05 times that of MEA. Coupling polarity matching with multicomponent tuning thus offers a transferable route to low-energy, mass-transfer-intensified CO2 capture.
Abstract Protic ionic liquids characterized by permutable protons have important applications in electrochemistry. This work represents an unprecedented report of the use of such electrolytes for CO2 electroreduction (ECR) into CO at 10 bar and near room temperature (45 °C) on zinc electrodes. It was observed that when protic ILs are synthesized from strong acids, the competition with the hydrogen evolution reaction increases. In contrast, the use of softer acids in the synthesis significantly enhances CO production. Imidazolium-based protic ILs were chosen due to their known high CO2 solubility and consequently their potential to increase reaction productivity. The electrolytes were electrochemically characterized, their conductivities and diffusion coefficients were determined, and their performance was compared. Despite the aqueous nature of the electrolyte, remarkably, 100% Faradaic efficiencies were obtained with [HMIM][Lac] containing 50 wt % water. The performance of the aqueous protic 50 wt % [HMIM][Lac] electrolyte surpassed the performance of the non-protic 50 wt % [EMIM][OTf] electrolyte. Furthermore, among the investigated water concentrations, the maximum CO production for the protic 50 wt % [HMIM][Lac] (177 µmol/cm2) is of the same order as the magnitude of 90 wt % [EMIM][OTf] (271 µmol/cm2), an almost pure IL, more expensive, and less sustainable electrolyte. The non-fluorinated bio-based lactate anion concurs to the higher sustainability of the process. Hydrophilic protic ILs are thus promising as electrolytes for ECR.
Abstract The removal of aged varnishes and coatings is a recurrent task in the preservation of Cultural Heritage (CH), often performed using organic solvents. However, solvents are difficult to control as they evaporate, diffuse inside the artifact, and spread at the surfaces of the painted layer. Here, we report the synthesis and characterization of biobased organogels, which constitute a novel class of advanced sustainable materials designed to maximize the confinement and retention of the solvents, allowing for safe applications on sensitive painted layers and other artistic surfaces. The polyurethane gel network is obtained by reacting castor oil with a biobased isocyanate through an easy one-pot solvent-free synthetic route. The gels’ mechanical properties and nanoscale structure can be controlled by playing on the ratio between polyol and isocyanate groups, as demonstrated by rheology and X-ray scattering. The gels can be swollen with different solvents, showing that they are versatile tools that can interact with various types of varnishes/coatings in a controlled way. After preliminary tests on mockups, the gels were used to remove an aged varnish from the surface of a modern metaphysical painting masterpiece belonging to the Peggy Guggenheim Collection of Venice. The new tools grant safe and effective varnish removal within short exposure times (30–60 s), providing enhanced control and time-effectiveness compared to traditional conservation methodologies based on cotton swabs and solvent thickeners.
Abstract Adsorption is regarded as a green direct lithium extraction process. However, its practical application is limited by the serious dissolution and difficult recovery of adsorbents, as well as a heavy reliance on an external pH environment. To overcome the limitations, this study develops a novel pseudo-electrochemical intercalation/deintercalation method by constructing a Li2TiO3/H2TiO3 electrode pair for lithium extraction. This method is based on water electrolysis with an applied electric field, which in situ establishes a self-supplying acid/base microenvironment within the electrolytic cell. It enables synchronous and efficient lithium release and capture without external chemical reagents. The adsorbent electrode demonstrates excellent cycling stability, retaining over 95.8% capacity after 10 consecutive cycles, with minimal titanium dissolution (average 0.1%). Furthermore, it achieves a lithium adsorption capacity of 39.75 mg·g–1 with outstanding ion selectivity (Li+/Na+ separation factor of 507.66) in simulated Zabuye salt lake brine. This work provides an efficient, stable, and chemical-free strategy for selective lithium recovery, offering a promising route toward sustainable lithium extraction from salt lake resources.
Abstract The pursuit of green and efficient methods for benzylic oxidation remains a long-standing goal and an area of intense interest in organic synthesis. Herein, a visible-light-driven photocatalytic system has been developed for the selective oxidation of benzylic C–H bonds to carbonyl compounds using molecular oxygen as the sole oxidant in an aqueous medium. This strategy employs commercially available nitroarenes, such as 4-nitro-2-(trifluoromethyl)benzonitrile. Water plays a crucial role in enhancing both the reaction rate and selectivity. The protocol features a broad substrate scope with excellent functional group tolerance, accommodating alkylbenzenes bearing diverse side chains, including sensitive amine moieties. Mechanistic investigations reveal a dual activation pathway involving both hydrogen atom transfer (HAT) from the photoexcited nitroarene and single-electron transfer (SET) via an electron donor–acceptor (EDA) complex between the substrate and the nitroarene. The promoting effect of water is attributed to π–hydrogen bond interactions, which thermodynamically facilitate C–H bond cleavage. Beyond benzylic oxidation, the methodology is successfully applied to sulfide oxidation, oxidative formylation, and Povarov-type reactions. Furthermore, it demonstrates significant potential for sustainable applications, including the photodegradation of lignin model compounds and polystyrene, as well as efficient operation in a continuous-flow system. This work presents a green and practical photocatalytic platform that merges the advantages of a benign aqueous medium, a low E-factor, and the use of molecular oxygen as the sole oxidant.
Abstract The recovery of lithium from spent lithium-ion battery (LIB) leachates remained challenging because strong acidity and complex ion compositions compromised the stability and selectivity of conventional nanofiltration (NF) membranes. In this work, an acid-resistant membrane was synthesized via covalent grafting of histidine (HIS) onto a polyamide (PA) layer (PA-HIS) through secondary interfacial polymerization (IP). In acidic media, imidazole protonation generated positively charged imidazolium sites that repelled H+, suppressing acid-catalyzed amide hydrolysis. Beyond this protective effect, HIS moieties enhanced surface hydration and water flux. The imidazole groups further promoted multivalent cation coordination and improved ion selectivity. This modified membrane maintained 98.9% Na2SO4 rejection after 28 days at pH = 1, demonstrating excellent chemical durability. When electro-nanofiltration (ENF) based on the PA-HIS membrane was carried out for separating simulated acidic LIB leachates, the rejection of Ni2+, Co2+, and Mn2+ of over 99.8% and Li+ rejection of –35% were achieved to yield a separation factor SLi/(Ni,Co,Mn) of around 600. Continuous operational stability was further confirmed and exhibited exceptionally high ion selectivity (SLi/(Ni,Co,Mn) > 400). These results demonstrated that HIS grafting enhanced acid durability, and electric field regulated ion discrimination, facilitating Li recovery from acidic LIB leachates.
Abstract Vanadium-based oxides are promising cathodes for aqueous zinc-ion batteries (AZIB) but suffer from inferior structural stability and sluggish Zn2+ diffusion. Herein, Na0.069Ca1.06V10O24·3.2H2O (NaCaVOH) microspheres were rationally designed and synthesized via a facile, scalable, and low-energy one-step hydrothermal route by regulating Na+/Ca2+ co-insertion into the layered vanadium oxide. The dual cations act as pillars to stabilize the layered structure, while structural water lubricates ion transport to accelerate Zn2+ (de)intercalation, realizing a synergistic enhancement of performance and sustainability. The NaCaVOH cathode delivers a high reversible capacity of 327 mA h g–1 at 0.5 A g–1, 54.6% capacity retention from 0.5 to 10 A g–1, and 90% capacity retention over 8000 cycles at 10 A g–1. Impressively, it exhibits exceptional wide-temperature adaptability, maintaining 91.82–52.66% of room-temperature capacity from 10 to –30 °C with 97.99% capacity recovery upon reheating to 25 °C and sustaining 100% capacity over 800 cycles at -20 °C. This work offers a feasible and cost-effective cation-engineering strategy for developing sustainable, high-performance, and wide-temperature vanadium-based cathodes, advancing the practical application of AZIBs in low-carbon industrial energy storage systems.
Abstract Developing sustainable single-cell protein (SCP) from non-food feedstocks offers a promising strategy to address the escalating global demand for sustainable nutrition. However, the lack of industrially robust platforms capable of cost-efficient multi-substrate assimilation remains a key bottleneck. Here, we discover a Cyberlindnera jadinii strain, CGMCC34730, which can efficiently utilize diverse non-food carbon sources (e.g., acetate, ethanol, and xylose) for SCP production. Metabolic analysis reveals the assimilation mechanisms for these substrates, notably identifying the reductive glycine pathway as central to formic acid (FA) utilization. Scaled-up production in a 5-L bioreactor demonstrates excellent performance, with ethanol- and acetate-driven cultures reaching protein contents of 68.60 and 67.34% and volumetric productivities of 8.91 and 7.90 t m–3 y–1, respectively. The resulting SCP surpasses soybean meal and approaches the quality of fish meal, exhibiting superior essential amino acid indices alongside elevated carbohydrate and B-vitamin contents. Furthermore, we validate a circular bioeconomy model by converting electrochemically synthesized 13C-labeled acetate into SCP. Techno-economic analysis confirms that acetate-based fermentation offers optimal cost-effectiveness for industrial deployment. In summary, this GRAS-certified platform establishes a highly efficient and economically viable route for the sustainable production of high-value SCP from non-food substrates.
Abstract Isobutane (C4H10) is an important raw material for the synthesis of various industrial products, including hydrocarbon refrigerants, alkylated gasoline, and propylene oxide. Conventionally, it is produced via catalytic cracking under harsh conditions, typically at temperatures of 423–673 K and pressures of 2.0–4.0 MPa. In this study, we report a novel approach for converting CO2 into C4H10 under ambient pressure. Our method employs a mild photocatalytic route, achieving an impressive production rate of 33.57 μmol·g–1·h–1 with a remarkable selectivity of 96.17%. During photocatalytic CO2 reduction in aqueous solution, the CuInS2 (CIS) nanoflower catalyst undergoes in situ reconstruction, transforming into a CuInS2/In(OH)3 (CIS/IOH) composite featuring both sulfur (Sv) and indium (Inv) vacancies. These vacancies within the CIS/IOH structure significantly enhance asymmetric charge distribution at the dual metal sites, stabilize key reaction intermediates, and reduce the energy barrier for C–C coupling, thereby facilitating the hydrogenation process that leads to the formation of C4H10. This work presents an artificial photosynthesis strategy for selectively producing high-purity C4H10 with low production cost under mild reaction conditions, aligning with the principles of green chemistry and low energy consumption.
Abstract Aqueous zinc metal batteries are attractive for safe and low-cost energy storage, yet their practical application remains limited by water-induced parasitic reactions and unstable zinc deposition at the anode/electrolyte interface. Herein, a bio-based gelatin/poly(γ-glutamic acid) hydrogel electrolyte is developed to regulate the local water environment and stabilize Zn plating/stripping behavior. The gelatin/PGA composite hydrogel integrates the mechanically supportive gelatin framework with the carboxyl-rich PGA component, providing a polymer environment that regulates water activity and interfacial behavior and is associated with more uniform Zn deposition. As a result, the Zn//Zn symmetric cell achieves stable cycling for over 3600 h at 0.5 mA cm–2 and over 1600 h at 1 mA cm–2. The Zn//I2 full cell exhibits high reversible capacity, low self-discharge, and long-term cycling stability, retaining 90.85% of its capacity after 5000 cycles at 1 A g–1. In addition, the hydrogel electrolyte shows good mechanical durability, cytocompatibility, and degradability under natural conditions. This work provides a sustainable biopolymer-based electrolyte strategy for improving Zn anode stability in aqueous energy storage systems.
Abstract Reactive rejuvenation can restore the bitumen phase and reconstruct the styrene–butadiene–styrene (SBS) phase in aged SBS modified bitumen (SMB). However, reactive rejuvenated SMB still undergoes repeated aging during service. To enhance the aging resistance of reactive rejuvenated SMB, biomass-derived biochar was incorporated into the reactive rejuvenator to develop a biochar-modified reactive rejuvenator (BRR). The effect of biomass-derived biochar on reactive rejuvenated SMB during multiple aging and rejuvenation cycles (MARC) was investigated through physical property test, rheological test, toughness test, SARA fraction analysis, fluorescence microscopy test, and molecular dynamics simulations. Results show that BRR can restore the compositional balance of the bitumen phase and reconstruct the SBS phase in aged SMB, but its rejuvenation efficiency gradually declines with increasing MARC cycles. The large specific surface area and porous structure of particulate biochar absorb and stabilize light fractions in rejuvenated SMB, thereby weakening their dispersion and solubilization effects on heavy fractions and increasing the relative proportion of heavy fractions. This strengthens the rutting resistance of reactive rejuvenated SMB at the expense of its deformation resistance and low-temperature cracking resistance. Biochar can improve the aging resistance of rejuvenated SMB by protecting the bitumen phase rather than the SBS phase. This protection is attributed to its ability to absorb and stabilize light fractions in rejuvenated SMB, which reduces their loss during multiple aging cycles and retards the transition of the bitumen phase toward a gel-like colloidal structure.
Abstract Acidic tin-based redox flow batteries (RFBs) represent a promising alternative to vanadium systems owing to their low cost, elemental abundance, and superior resistance to the hydrogen evolution reaction. However, nonuniform Sn electrodeposition and low active-material solubility severely impede their practical implementation. Herein, a heterogeneous nucleation strategy is proposed to regulate interfacial deposition by deliberately introducing dispersed SnSO4 nanoparticles into concentrated sulfuric acid. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) confirms the formation of uniform colloidal seeds at an optimal precursor concentration of 0.3 M. Acting as in situ heterogeneous nucleation sites, such dispersed particles enable highly conformal and adherent Sn plating across carbon felt electrodes, strongly contrasting the localized agglomeration inherent to conventional homogeneous electrolytes. Coupled with a Mn2+/Mn3+ posolyte, the resulting acidic Sn–Mn flow battery (TMFB) delivers exceptional stability, operating continuously for over 440 h at an areal capacity of 20 mAh cm−2. Furthermore, the battery achieves an impressive average energy efficiency of 81.86% at 80 mA cm−2 alongside a remarkable peak power density of 346.05 mW cm−2, outperforming most previously reported acidic RFBs. This work successfully transforms undissolved solid species into functional nucleates, establishing a general design principle for high-energy-density, cost-effective aqueous energy storage.
