Purpose Despite the critical role of procedural fairness in supply chain relationships, research on how differences in procedural fairness perceptions between buyers and suppliers shape exchange relationships remains limited. Grounded in transaction cost economics, this study investigates how buyer-side procedural fairness asymmetry affects supplier performance over time through changes in supplier negotiation costs. It further examines how institutional and relational contexts shape the effect of buyer-side procedural fairness asymmetry. Design/methodology/approach Using survey data from 224 matched buyer–supplier dyads in Chinese manufacturing firms, the research employs 2-stage regression analyses to test the proposed hypotheses. Findings The results show that buyer-side procedural fairness asymmetry reduces supplier performance. This detrimental effect is partially mediated by an increase in supplier negotiation costs, indicating that perceived fairness asymmetry directly burdens suppliers with higher transaction costs, which subsequently impairs their performance. Moreover, government intervention strengthens the positive effect of buyer-side procedural fairness asymmetry on changes in supplier negotiation costs, and flexibility also amplifies this relationship. Originality/value By adopting a dyadic and temporal changes perspective, this study advances inter-organizational fairness research by identifying procedural fairness asymmetry as a distinct governance condition. It also deepens understanding of governance effectiveness in buyer–supplier relationships and advances supply chain relationship management research.
Purpose This study examines how buyer orchestration modes shape knowledge-sharing dynamics and innovation outcomes among competing suppliers in multi-tier automotive supply networks. While prior coopetition research emphasizes trust and voluntary collaboration as drivers of innovation, we investigate the underexplored role of the buyer as an active governance agent whose orchestration choices – ranging from coercive enforcement to collaborative co-development – shape whether competing suppliers share knowledge deeply enough to produce innovation. Design/methodology/approach Using multiple-perspective interviews, we conducted 28 in-depth interviews across six coopetitive relationships involving eight organizations in the Austrian and German automotive supply industries. Cases were purposefully selected to capture variation in buyer orchestration modes (enforcer, mandator, coordinator, facilitator, co-developer, partner), relationship formation (voluntary vs involuntary) and trust configurations. Data were analyzed using within-case and cross-case methods, with the relational view (RV) as the analytical lens. Findings We identify three theoretically distinct orchestration regimes – coercive, facilitative and collaborative – that shape how RV's four mechanisms (relation-specific assets, knowledge-sharing routines, complementary resources and governance) operate in coopetitive settings. Coercive orchestration (enforcer and mandator) generates compliance-based knowledge exchange but suppresses exploratory sharing – even when inter-supplier trust is high. Facilitative orchestration (coordinator and facilitator) creates structural conditions for sharing but cannot generate the relational motivation required for breakthrough innovation without pre-existing trust. Only collaborative orchestration (co-developer and partner), where the buyer signals vulnerability through co-investment of its own technical and organizational resources, enables suppliers to transition from protective to exploratory knowledge sharing, producing high innovation. Practical implications Supply chain managers should recognize that mandating collaboration is insufficient for innovation; the buyer's orchestration mode – not merely the existence of trust or voluntary engagement – is the primary lever. We provide actionable guidance for selecting and transitioning between orchestration modes based on relational conditions and innovation objectives. Originality/value This study reconceptualizes the buyer from a peripheral contextual node to the node that owns the primary governance mechanisms in coopetitive innovation. We extend the RV to buyer-orchestrated coopetition, showing that the four relational rent mechanisms are channeled and constrained by orchestration mode. Our framework explains why high trust fails to unlock innovation under coercive orchestration – a counterintuitive finding that challenges assumptions in both the coopetition and trust literatures.
Purpose This paper examines the impact of precision scheduled railroading (PSR), an efficiency-driven reform, on the safety and operational performance of US Class I freight railroads. Leveraging Competing Institutional Logics and Stakeholder Theory perspectives, the study explores how PSR institutionalizes efficiency logic while constraining safety logic, generating performance gains at the expense of elevated operational risk. Design/methodology/approach Using archival data from 2011 to 2024, the study employs a panel dataset of Class I railroads to assess changes in operational metrics (e.g. train length, locomotive utilization, workforce size) and safety outcomes (e.g. accidents, derailments) following PSR adoption. A difference-in-differences approach with carrier fixed effects and information-theoretic model comparisons is used to assess the robustness and heterogeneity of effects across rail carriers. Findings Results indicate that PSR is associated with improvement in operational efficiency through longer trains, increased locomotive utilization and workforce reductions; yet these improvements are accompanied by higher derailment and accident rates. The pattern reflects an institutionalized safety–efficiency paradox, where efficiency logic dominates organizational priorities, advancing shareholder interests while compromising safety considerations for frontline stakeholders. Notably, in the rail industry, the safety–efficiency paradox impacts extend beyond frontline operational workers, also negatively affecting communities where rail carriers operate. Originality/value Through integrating Competing Institutional Logics with Stakeholder Theory, the study reveals how PSR prioritizes efficiency logic while subordinating safety priorities, producing uneven outcomes across stakeholder groups. These insights refine the boundary conditions of the safety–efficiency paradox and offer theoretical and practical guidance for balancing operational performance and safety in infrastructure-intensive transportation systems.
Purpose This paper investigates the technological, organizational and environmental factors that shape the adoption of aerial drone operations at the warehouse–last-mile delivery interface, addressing benefits and barriers of drone adoption, most suitable functional areas, stakeholder collaboration and support of a low-altitude airspace management (LAAM) system for successful integration. Design/methodology/approach Drawing on the technology–organization–environment (TOE) theoretical framework, we employ a qualitative research design, analyzing data collected during semi-structured interviews with 38 managers representing warehousing companies and drone operators around the world. Findings Successful drone integration in retail logistics depends not only on one firm's technology, organization and external context, but also on a collaborative effort across the supply chain. While drones offer clear benefits in logistics, full-scale adoption requires inter-organizational ecosystem coordination (and, depending on the governance structure, also collaboration) to overcome challenges such as infrastructural readiness and regulatory coordination. Practical implications Examining operations at the interface of warehouse operations and last-mile delivery yields management insights that can drive effective strategies for implementing drones. Building on the TOE framework, we conceptualize inter-organizational ecosystem coordination as a critical enabler of drone integration and innovation adoption in logistics. Based on our findings, we suggest that drone operators should integrate more deeply into logistics services rather than focusing solely on delivery, and warehouses should explore current uses for drone technology rather than simply considering future applications. We identify three governance models for integrating drones into logistics ecosystems: vertical integration, inter-organizational collaboration and partial adoption with intra-organizational collaboration. Originality/value We contribute to the evolving understanding of technology adoption and drone integration at the warehouse–last-mile delivery interface by examining managers' perspectives for the first time. Extending the application of TOE from the firm level to inter-organizational coordination better captures infrastructural enablers of innovation adoption and active collaboration between organizations in logistics operations.
Purpose In the transformation to the circular economy, circular logistics nodes are becoming increasingly important to, for example, match supply and demand, coordinate flows, increase logistics efficiency and customer utility, and reduce environmental impact. The purpose of this study is to expand our theoretical understanding of the circular retail transformation and its implications for circular logistics nodes. Design/methodology/approach An integrative literature review was conducted to synthesize diverse sources of knowledge on the circular transformation. The review focused on circular retail stores as representative nodes and then generalized these insights to a broader range of circular logistics nodes. Given the topic's interdisciplinary nature, knowledge about retail stores in a circular retail context exists, but is fragmented across multiple domains (e.g. sustainability, marketing, logistics and supply chain). To the authors’ knowledge, no previous study has integrated extant knowledge to advance our theoretical understanding of retail stores as circular logistics nodes. Findings The study identified seven themes that shape the circular transformation and retail-store configuration: (1) incentives and regulatory enablers, (2) introducing the circular consumer, (3) the issue of supply, (4) circular governance and organization, (5) integrating and scaling circular services and operations, (6) leveraging resources and (7) the need for new performance indicators. Research limitations/implications Anchored in a network-node-resource perspective, the study findings are extended to discuss implications for a broader range of circular logistics nodes. The themes and implications are then connected in a research agenda for circular logistics nodes, which outlines research avenues and questions as well as potential theoretical and methodological approaches. Originality/value The article brings a new perspective by conceptualizing retail stores as circular logistics nodes and discussing broader configuration consideration for logistics nodes in the circular retail network.
Purpose This study systematically explores the pathways through which smart packaging (SP) enhances logistics capabilities (LCs) to simultaneously address two key challenges for the circular economy (CE) – physical value and information loss. While the link between SP and circularity is recognised, the specific pathways through which item-level data reconfigures LCs and leads to circular outcomes remain underexplored. This paper clarifies these connections, detailing how and why SP serves as a foundational enabler for the strategic transition from reactive recovery to proactive circular supply chains. Design/methodology/approach Following a theory-informed systematic literature review (SLR), 59 articles were analysed using axial coding and multi-layered framework synthesis. The research utilises packaging functionalities (PFs) and LCs as micro-level and macro-level units of analysis, respectively, while adopting the R-imperative framework as a strategic lens to map circular outcomes. Findings The study identifies four thematic pathways: (1) proactive logistics management and dynamic optimisation, (2) autonomous and scalable reverse flows, (3) systemic trust and quality of material streams, and (4) collaborative value co-creation. The findings demonstrate that SP-enhanced LCs address the challenges of achieving circularity by mitigating physical value loss through functional preservation and information loss through item-level visibility. Information-management capabilities are the foundational antecedents allowing supply-management, demand-management, and coordination capabilities to mitigate the information asymmetry inherent in closed-loop systems. Originality/value This research develops a novel multi-layered conceptual framework explaining the “how” and “why” behind SP-enabled higher-order circularity. It identifies the theoretical boundaries of logistics-led interventions, highlighting the limits of item-level intelligence in supporting design-led strategies like repair and refurbish.
PurposeThis paper proposes an adaptive local Distribution Network (DN) approach supported by real-time consumer preference and inventory data for dynamic order allocation.Design/methodology/approachAn operational approach is outlined for DNs fulfilling omni-channel online orders, tailoring different delivery modes to cater to heterogeneous consumer demands. Since these combinations generate high task uncertainty, the approach draws on Organizational Information Processing Theory (OIPT), leveraging real-time data to enhance the retailer's information processing capacity. To evaluate its performance in a real-world scenario, a simulation was conducted implementing the proposed approach in a Brazilian retailer context.FindingsResults highlight the importance of aligning delivery strategies with diverse consumer expectations, suggesting that relying on a single facility type may be insufficient to meet such diverse demands. Computational outcomes indicate that decentralizing the DN into an adaptive hybrid approach, combining facilities and postponing fulfillment decisions using real-time data can mitigate task uncertainty, reducing fulfillment time for quick commerce and minimizing delivery attempts.Practical implicationsThis technology-driven solution empowers retailers to overcome the limitations of static networks. By aligning logistics operations with consumer preferences, it enhances fulfillment performance and balances operational trade-offs, preparing retailers for ever-evolving market trends.Originality/valueThis research addresses a gap in the holistic integration of multiple delivery modes, consumer logistics preferences and inventory locations by incorporating intelligent systems that enhance information processing capacity for postponed fulfillment decisions.
Purpose With the increased use of global supply chains in order to secure necessary resources and lower costs, there is a growing concern regarding occurrences of human trafficking, specifically forced labor, in the supply chain. For this reason, supply chain visibility and transparency are crucial. The purpose of this study was to provide a starting point for considering how AI-powered technology can play a role in addressing forced labor in supply chains.Design/methodology/approach The researchers used artificial intelligence (AI) to enhance supply chain visibility. An AI-powered analytic tool called "Break Chain" was developed and tested. A mixed-methods action research approach was used where quantitative data analysis was integrated with qualitative action steps. This allowed for a more comprehensive understanding of the complex and multifaceted nature of supply chain dynamics.Findings In this study, "Break Chain" was used to evaluate 50 businesses from various industries across Northeast Texas. "Break Chain" provided a dashboard visualization that synthesized the flagged data into an interactive interface. This allowed stakeholders to efficiently navigate and interpret complex datasets. The "Break Chain" technology also allowed for predictive modeling to forecast potential trafficking activities within corporate supply chains. This study found that the model had a precision rate of 91% and a recall rate of 87%, which point to "Break Chain's" calibrated sensitivity and specificity.Originality/value "Break Chain" is an innovative example of how technology can be used to locate and predict instances of forced labor within supply chains.
Purpose This study investigates whether supply chain transparency through sustainable supply management (SSM) disclosure influences consumer purchase behavior. When firms understand this behavior, they can optimize operations and craft clearer, more impactful supply-chain sustainability disclosures.Design/methodology/approach Two controlled laboratory experiments and a natural field experiment are used to evaluate various elements of SSM disclosures. The first laboratory experiment examines consumer willingness to pay a premium for products with SSM disclosures, when compared across firms. The second laboratory experiment examines consumer response to SSM disclosures across different products offered within the same firm. The field experiment evaluates whether consumers are willing to buy or pay a premium in actual market situations where SSM information is disclosed.Findings Results demonstrate significant consumer preferences for products accompanied by SSM disclosures. The analysis of the natural field experiment indicates that consumers are inclined to purchase more from firms that transparently communicate their SSM practices. Further, we find that at least some consumers are willing to pay a premium for products with SSM disclosure. The laboratory experiments, on the other hand, fail to provide significant evidence that consumers are willing to pay more for products with SSM disclosures. These results offer insights into how signaling and legitimacy concerns within the downstream supply chain shape consumers' purchasing behavior and, in turn, firm performance.Practical implications A proactive communication strategy on firm SSM engagement can gain market share and build competitive advantage. The costs associated with gathering SSM information can potentially be offset by greater market share and premium pricing. Regulators and policymakers can support efforts for supply chain transparency by providing impetus for consumer requests for such information and encouraging firms to supply it.Originality/value This research uniquely integrates a series of behavioral experiments to robustly assess the influence of supply chain transparency on consumer purchasing behavior. Through legitimacy and signaling theoretical lenses, our study shows the reason for firm strategic communication in SSM efforts. There is an emphasis on how supply chain decisions related to collaboration and facilitating transparency are critical to organizational market competitiveness due to consumer preferences and behavior. The role of transparency and legitimacy in sustainable supply chain management is further advanced.
Purpose Post-retail liquidation platforms (PLRPs) are reshaping inventory disposition strategies, offering scalable channels for managing excess inventory. Yet, PRLP adoption remains uneven and the mechanisms driving value are not well-understood. Prior work has examined reverse logistics and secondary markets more broadly, but research focused on how sellers can most effectively disposition goods through PLRPs is limited. This study examines seller strategies and identifies the structural factors that shape performance in digital liquidation environments.Design/methodology/approach This study draws on qualitative insights from Fortune 500 retailers, a state agency and industry experts to understand the current landscape of online PRLPs. In addition, it analyzes more than 21,000 auction listings from a leading PRLP to assess how seller characteristics, lot design and listing strategies shape performance.Findings The study highlights significant inefficiencies in current PRLP utilization practices, including a lack of sophistication and inconsistent tactics. Yet amid these inefficiencies, the study identifies that liquidation outcomes follow systematic patterns driven by three seller-controlled mechanisms: seller equity, listing quality and product context. These findings, based on PRLP data from the United States, demonstrate that value recovery is not random but shaped by deliberate engagement strategies.Originality/value By bridging field-based insights with large-scale platform data, this study moves beyond descriptive accounts of secondary markets to identify prescriptive design principles for digital liquidation. Theoretically, it highlights a structural misalignment between seller practices and platform performance drivers. Managerially, it provides actionable guidance for improving recovery rates through strategic listing and engagement. At an ecosystem level, it positions PRLPs as emerging infrastructure within modern supply chains, with implications for circular economy objectives and sustainable secondary market flows.
Purpose Grocery retailers in the fast-moving consumer goods (FMCG) sector are reconfiguring their logistics networks to address rising operational complexity and technological disruption. In this context, warehouse automation is moving beyond operational support to play a strategic role, enabling firms to redesign processes and adapt logistics systems to dynamic market and technological conditions. Despite the growing relevance of automation, empirical understanding of how automated technologies are selected, combined, and adapted in grocery DCs remains limited. This study addresses this gap by investigating how grocery retailers implement warehouse automation to transform logistics processes in response to evolving operational complexity and market demands.Design/methodology/approach A multi-phase qualitative approach was adopted, combining semi-structured interviews with eight automation providers and six grocery retailers, complemented by site visits. Data were analysed through the Gioia method to inductively derive recurring patterns and managerial logics. The emerging framework was then interpreted through the lens of the DCT.Findings The study identifies six DC processes supported by distinct automation technologies, such as AS/RS systems, miniloads, shuttles, and robotic picking stations, and five strategic decision factors guiding automation decisions: selectivity, accessibility, expandability, scalability and resilience. Interpreted through the lens of dynamic capabilities theory, these dimensions show how the implementation of automation supports firms in sensing operational requirements, seizing technological opportunities and sustaining long-term adaptability and operational continuity.Originality/value This research bridges the gap between theory and practice in grocery logistics by conceptualising warehouse automation implementation as a dynamic capability. It provides a validated framework for scholars and practitioners, supporting informed, future-oriented automation strategies in retail distribution.
Purpose This study examines when and how supply chain traceability and due diligence practices enhance financial performance, measured as asset turnover (ATO), in the fashion industry. Drawing on legitimacy theory and organizational slack, we argue that the financial returns from these practices are contingent on firms' operational efficiency, specifically, inventory efficiency and selling, general and administrative (SG&A) efficiency, rather than universal or unconditional. Design/methodology/approach We combine archival data from the fashion revolution foundation's annual fashion transparency index with financial data from Compustat for a sample of 40 publicly traded fashion companies. Moderated regression analysis tests whether inventory efficiency and SG&A efficiency condition the traceability-ATO and due diligence–ATO relationships. Findings The direct effects of traceability and due diligence on ATO are not statistically significant when examined in isolation. However, traceability positively influences ATO when moderated by high inventory efficiency and high SG&A efficiency. Contrary to the moderating pattern for traceability, due diligence shows negative interaction effects under conditions of high operational efficiency, suggesting important theoretical and practical distinctions between these two types of transparency practice. Originality/value This article offers the first empirical evidence linking supply chain traceability and due diligence to financial performance in the fashion industry, introducing operational efficiency as a boundary condition that explains when, and for whom, these practices yield measurable returns. The asymmetric moderation patterns for traceability versus due diligence challenge prevailing assumptions that transparency is uniformly beneficial, and contribute to legitimacy theory by specifying the resource conditions under which CSP investments translate into financial gains.
Purpose Supply chain concentration (SC concentration) is a key aspect of supply chain structure and a determinant of a firm's resilience to external disruptions. However, previous research on how SC concentration affects firm resilience has been inconclusive. This study investigates the nuances of this relationship by examining the moderating effects of political ties and board interlocks.Design/methodology/approach We used both cross-sectional and panel designs to test the hypotheses. Our main analysis is conducted on a cross-sectional sample of 3,745 publicly listed Chinese companies during the COVID-19 pandemic. For a robustness check, we test the hypotheses using a panel dataset of Chinese firms from 2007 to 2022. We also interviewed managers at two Chinese manufacturing firms to understand the mechanisms underlying the theorized relationships.Findings We find that both supplier and customer concentration are detrimental to firm resilience. Specifically, firms with high SC concentration experience greater firm value losses and take longer to recover following the COVID-19 outbreak. Furthermore, firms can leverage social capital with external parties to mitigate such effects. We find that the impact of supplier and customer concentration is weaker for firms with strong political ties and high levels of board interlocks. The results are robust across alternative measures and research designs.Originality/value These findings extend prior research by identifying key dimensions of social capital - specifically, political ties and board interlocks - that mitigate the negative impact of SC concentration on firm resilience.
Purpose This paper aims to advance understanding of freight transport network disruptions by reconceptualising them as systemic, multi-level phenomena. It examines how disruptive events originating in European freight transport networks generate ripple effects across transport networks, supply chains and society, and how resilience is expressed across these interconnected levels. Design/methodology/approach The qualitative, multi-stage research design combines focus group discussions, semi-structured interviews and document analysis. Data on four disruptive events is analysed using an analytical framework capturing ripple effects, intersectionality and resilience across transport network, supply chain and societal levels. Findings Disruptions generate ripple effects that propagate into supply chains and society. They vary in scale, scope and intensity, and intersect with existing vulnerabilities. Ripple effects are not linear but unfold through interacting and co-occurring dynamics across levels, highlighting the systemic nature of transport disruptions. Research limitations/implications The study is based on a limited number of qualitative cases and does not aim for statistical generalisation. It opens avenues for further research on multi-level disruption dynamics, ripple effects and transport network resilience. Practical implications The findings highlight the need for resilient transport infrastructure, improved coordination, and enhanced stakeholder communication to mitigate ripple effects. Social implications Freight transport disruptions have far-reaching societal consequences, emphasising the importance of preparedness, communication and disruption management. Originality/value The paper contributes to disruption and resilience literature by shifting analytical focus from individual firms and supply chains to freight transport networks and their societal embeddedness. By examining multiple disruptive events, it reveals shared vulnerabilities and recurring patterns of propagation.
PurposeThis study examines how consumer motivation toward drone delivery emerges in omnichannel retailing, addressing a critical gap in consumer-centric supply chain management by exploring underexplored motivational processes that shape consumer readiness for logistics innovations. While prior research has primarily emphasized behavioral intention or adoption using frameworks such as TAM, TPB, and UTAUT, the formation of motivation itself as a psychological state that precedes and sustains intention has received little theoretical attention. Drawing on Expectancy Theory, this study investigates the antecedent mechanisms that underpin motivational readiness and identifies the threshold conditions required for that motivation to emerge.Design/methodology/approachA survey of consumers in the United States was conducted to capture perceptions of valence, expectancy, instrumentality, consumer engagement with retailer (CER), and consumer motivation toward drone delivery. Structural relationships were tested using PLS-SEM, complemented by Necessary Condition Analysis (NCA) to identify threshold conditions required for motivation to emerge.FindingsThe results reveal a hierarchical motivational structure underlying consumer readiness for drone delivery. Valence functions as a foundational gatekeeper. Expectancy and instrumentality are statistically necessary conditions, while valence is the only component that imposes a binding bottleneck threshold on motivation. Consumer Engagement with Retailer (CER) partially mediates the effects of valence, expectancy, and instrumentality, underscoring its amplifying rather than essential role. Together, the results demonstrate how motivational predictors and necessary prerequisites jointly shape pre-adoption readiness for drone delivery in omnichannel retailing, providing a diagnostic framework to assess whether the motivational conditions necessary for logistics innovation scaling have been met.Practical implicationsRetailers and logistics providers can leverage these findings to design implementation strategies and managerial emphasis aligned with motivational thresholds. Specifically, firms should emphasize value propositions (Valence) to activate consumer motivation, reinforce service reliability and usability (Expectancy) as motivation strengthens, and highlight outcome utility (Instrumentality) to sustain motivation at higher levels. Integrating drone delivery into broader Consumer Engagement with Retailer (CER) strategies can further amplify motivation, providing a structured framework to inform pilot deployments and subsequent scaling decisions in omnichannel retail environments.Originality/valueThis study is the first to empirically operationalize and validate Valence, Instrumentality, and Expectancy (VIE) scales in the context of consumer drone delivery within omnichannel retailing. By positioning Consumer Motivation rather than behavioral intention as the focal outcome, it addresses a critical gap in logistics and delivery innovation research where the motivational processes underlying consumers' responses to logistics innovations remain underexamined. The study further introduces Consumer Engagement with Retailer (CER) as a novel application in omnichannel fulfillment research, demonstrating its amplifying role in translating motivational beliefs into consumer readiness for emerging delivery innovations.
Purpose"Buy-Online-Return-In-Store" (BORIS) cross-channel returns is a notable tactic e-retailers use to attract consumers. Yet, the approach may create operational challenges, motivating concerns regarding its overall impact. This study provides empirical evidence on associations between use of BORIS and e-retailer performance, while also exploring interactions with same-channel free return shipping policies and two promotion tactics (i.e. social media use, sponsored search).Design/methodology/approachUsing annual data (2013-2019) for the Top 1,000 e-retailers in North America, we employ regressions, robustness checks and endogeneity corrections to examine associations between BORIS and four performance metrics: website sales, order conversion rates, average customer order value and website traffic.FindingsFixed-effect model results suggest offering BORIS to online customers provides a negligible direct benefit to website sales and no meaningful impact across performance metrics among pure e-retailers. For bricks-and-clicks e-retailers, BORIS interacts with free return shipping policies to weakly bolster average order value and website traffic. When sponsored search spend is low, BORIS lifts average order value but does not improve conversion rates. Conversely, BORIS drives incremental website traffic via tactical synergies with sponsored search. Endogeneity-corrected random-effect estimates are broadly consistent and further reveal that e-retailers offering BORIS for competitive purposes may experience additional significant consequences from social media moderation.Originality/valueThe study contributes to research by theorizing potential performance impacts of BORIS use and finding empirical outcomes that motivate questions about its overall effectiveness. The nuanced findings show BORIS can provide scope-specific benefits under certain conditions. For e-retail managers, the findings translate anecdotal evidence about the importance of BORIS returns into empirical evidence that BORIS returns policies can matter, yet for some metrics, may exhibit only weak associations with e-retailer performance.
