This paper updates previous estimates of the global value of using genetically modified (GM) crop technology in agriculture at the farm level. It examined impacts on yields, key variable costs, direct farm income and impacts on production of the main crops where the technology is used. The economic benefits have been significant with farm incomes for those using the technology having increased by $384.9 billion US dollars (1996-2024). This equates to an average farm income gain of $106/hectare. The farm income gains are divided 52% to farmers in developing countries and 48% to farmers in developed countries. Sixty-eight per cent of the gains have derived from yield and production gains with 32% coming from cost savings. These yield and production gains have made important contributions to increasing global production levels of the four main crops, having, for example, added 459 million tonnes and 817 million tonnes respectively to the global production of soybeans and maize since 1996. In 2024, the extra global production of the crops in which GM technology has been used (99 million tonnes), would have, if conventional production systems been used, required an additional 25.5 million ha of land to be planted to these crops. In terms of investment, for each extra dollar invested in GM crop seeds (relative to the cost of conventional seed), farmers gained an average US $4.17 in extra income. In developing countries, the average return was $5.31, and in developed countries the average return was $3.47.
A bioengineered food labeling law recently came into full effect in the U.S. making the U.S. the 65th country with a mandatory GM (genetically modified) labeling policy. In contrast, there is no mandatory labeling of GM foods in Canada, including the canola industry's food products' such as canola oil and meal, despite intensive public campaigning and 20 years of polling that consistently show that more than 80% of Canadians want these products labeled. This paper examines the economic impact of the new U.S.' and other countries' laws regarding mandatory labeling of GM food products on the Canadian canola sector' overall economy, and society. It also considers the case for mandatory labeling of GM food products in Canada. Policy implications are discussed, and several policy recommendations are made that could contribute to the canola sector's growth, potential improvements in individual wellbeing, and increased overall social welfare. This paper sheds light on the important but neglected issue of GM food labeling policy in Canada and its potential implications for the Canadian canola industry.
Initial risk assessments of genetically modified (GM) crops began in the early 1990 s, focusing on herbicide tolerance and insect resistance, with approvals by the mid-1990s. These assessments compare GM crops to non-GM equivalents, a framework unchanged for over 30 years. Since the first assessment in 1994, over 4,400 evaluations have been conducted across more than 70 countries for both cultivation and food/feed use. To date, none have identified increased risk relative to conventional varieties. This article analyzes three decades of GM crop approvals, highlighting the consistency of scientific assessment processes. Fourteen crops underwent 692 cultivation and 1,891 food-release assessments for herbicide tolerance, while insect resistance accounted for 523 cultivation and 1,396 food-release assessments, largely involving Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). The findings underscore that GM crops are equivalent in risk to conventional varieties, supporting reliance on established international scientific expertise, particularly in resource-constrained regions.
Commercialized Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) crops require post-market stewardship that translates heterogeneous resistance signals into defensible action. Although previous syntheses have defined field-evolved and practical resistance and summarized global patterns, developers, regulators, and stewardship programs still need an operational structure for distinguishing weak anomalies from evidence warranting confirmation, mitigation, deployment revision, or replacement of compromised components. We synthesize evidence and stewardship experience from Bt maize and Bt cotton into an evidence-to-action framework linking preventive IRM implementation, resistance monitoring, evidence-state assignment, actionability assessment, and proportionate response. The framework classifies outcomes into four states: baseline susceptibility, early-warning signal, confirmed field-evolved resistance, and practical resistance. For each state, we define its operational meaning, minimum verification requirements, and proportionate actions. Representative pest - crop - toxin systems illustrate how field performance, bioassays, mechanistic evidence, deployment history, and refuge context can support earlier, more transparent, and evidence-proportionate stewardship decisions.
Environmental risk assessment (ERA) of genetically modified (GM) crops is essential for evaluating their potential impact on non-target organisms under field conditions. In this study, a long-term field assessment was conducted to evaluate the ecological effects of glufosinate-tolerant GM zoysiagrass (Zoysia japonica Steud.; events JG21 and JG21-MS1) on non-target arthropod communities at two geographically distinct living modified organism isolation sites in South Korea (Jeonju and Seogwipo). A total of 528,796 arthropods were collected and classified into three functional groups: pests (45.73%), natural enemies (14.51%), and other arthropods (39.76%). Arthropod community composition exhibited clear regional and temporal variations. Linear mixed-effects model (LMM) analyses indicated that arthropod abundance and diversity indices were primarily influenced by the year and region, whereas treatment effects, defined as differences between GM events and non-GM controls, were not significant. Although occasional statistical differences were detected, post hoc comparisons confirmed that arthropod communities associated with GM treatments were ecologically comparable to those of non-GM controls within each region and year (p > .05). Non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) ordination revealed clear clustering by region and year, with substantial overlap among treatments. Permutational multivariate analysis of variance showed that year explained the largest proportion of the variation (R2 = 0.640), whereas treatment effects were negligible (R2 = 0.006). Overall, these results provide robust field-based evidence that glufosinate-tolerant and male-sterile GM zoysiagrass does not adversely affect non-target arthropod communities, supporting its environmental safety in perennial agroecosystems.
Iran's rice security faces acute threats from drought, salinity, and pests. A sustained national research program has developed genetically modified (GM) rice to address these challenges. This critical review synthesizes over 15 years of research, applying a systematic literature search and thematic analysis to map the trajectory from gene discovery to field trials. Iranian scientists have demonstrated stable gene integration, successful trait pyramiding, and validated the superior field performance of Bt rice lines, including yield increases and reduced pesticide use with a lower environmental footprint. Despite this readiness, a stark innovation-implementation gap persists due to an inoperative regulatory framework and public skepticism. Contrasting Iran's path with successful models like Bangladesh highlights that scientific achievement alone is insufficient. This study concludes that transforming this potential into tangible benefits for food sovereignty requires enacting functional biosafety regulations and proactive public engagement that reframes domestic GM crops as tools for sustainable intensification.
Gene editing technologies can be used to develop new traits in plants by modifying DNA at specific locations. In many countries, plants made using these techniques, collectively called New Genomic Techniques (NGTs), are being regulated more leniently than transgenic genetically modified organisms (GMOs), opening possibilities for releasing gene-edited plant varieties onto the market. In other countries, including the European Union (EU), proposals for an adapted regulation are in discussion. We describe how the different types of modifications made with NGTs are regulated across the world. We provide an updated overview of gene-edited plant products that have been marketed worldwide, approved, or are currently in field trials. Consumer perception may be a challenge for plant products made using NGTs, but otherwise the commercialization of these new varieties faces the same challenges as new conventional products, including farmer and processor needs, market competition, and consumer preferences.
As a scientific issue characterized by both controversy and sensitivity to public risk, genetically modified (GM) technology has become an important entry point for understanding contemporary science communication through its dissemination and acceptance among young people. This study takes 25 Chinese youth aged 19-27 as its research participants, collects data through semi-structured in-depth interviews, and analyzes the process of attitude formation by applying grounded theory through open coding, axial coding, and selective coding. The findings show that young people usually take government announcements, expert interpretations, and mainstream media reports as their initial points of reference, while also conducting cross-source verification through social media, peer discussion, and personal experience, thereby displaying the coexistence of authoritative dependence and rational skepticism. On this basis, respondents did not generally develop attitudes of absolute support or outright rejection, but instead showed a tendency toward limited acceptance with conditional reservations. Further analysis indicates that accumulated socialization experiences and institutional trust give a certain degree of continuity to such judgments in subsequent encounters with information. On this basis, this article proposes an interpretive framework of authoritative dependence - rational skepticism - balance effect - trust inertia. The findings presented here constitute an interpretive understanding of the logic of attitude formation within a specific sample, rather than a population-level generalization.
To ensure food safety, consumer protection and environmental sustainability, the European Union enforces a robust regulatory framework for GMO monitoring. This study presents a multi-annual survey to evaluate the effectiveness of EU enforcement strategies in detecting and managing GMO presence across the food and feed supply chain. The study aggregates for the first time data across all EU Member States and product categories (food, feed, seed) over three time periods, providing a holistic view of GMO dynamics. The study investigated the number and type of products subjected to analytical tests but also reveals trends in GMO occurrence over time. These observations underscore the importance of updating detection strategies in control laboratories to address the evolving GMO landscape. By leveraging the study’s findings, EU competent authorities and official control laboratories may tailor their monitoring plans to reflect actual market trends and enhance the efficiency of GMO analysis.
The rapid growth in the world's population poses a significant threat to food security, making genetically modified organisms (GMOs) an important potential solution. Alongside technological advancements, public awareness of GMOs - including their benefits and existing challenges - plays a crucial role in their acceptance and use within communities. This study aimed to assess opinions and the level of awareness of the Iranian public regarding GM products, the sources they consult for information on the topic, and their trust in these sources. A survey was conducted with 5,730 predominantly young, urban, and well-educated individuals from 16 provinces. The results revealed that 40% of respondents held positive attitudes toward GM crops, a figure higher than those reported in some social media analyses. Using multiple logistic regression, the study found that factors such as age, education, occupation, and residence significantly influenced attitudes toward GMOs, whereas gender did not. Although 42% of participants reported having limited knowledge about GMOs, most expressed greater trust in scientists compared to media sources and supported various applications of GMO technology. These findings, which focus on educated urban youth due to convenience sampling, underscore the importance of education and media in shaping perceptions of GM products in Iran.
Innate® genetically modified (GM) potato events have been developed to confer desirable traits such as black spot resistance and decreased acrylamide levels. The first-generation event E12 and second-generation events X17, Y9, and Z6, which possess additional traits, including further sugar reduction and late blight resistance, have been approved for food use in several countries. Considering that these GM potatoes may be in commerce, they need to be appropriately monitored and labeled to ensure consumers’ right to informed choice. All of these events share the genetic construct pSIM1278. We developed a real-time PCR method targeting pSIM1278 that enables simultaneous screening of all Innate® GM potato events in a single reaction. The assay’s sensitivity and specificity were evaluated, and its practical utility was demonstrated through a distribution survey of imported potato products in Japan. This method provides a useful tool for monitoring GM potatoes containing the pSIM1278 sequence in foods.
Cotton is regarded as a strategic agricultural commodity owing to its renewable and naturally derived fiber. With the escalating global demand for high-quality fiber, genetic improvement of fiber traits is a critical focus for sustaining and advancing the textile industry standards. The cotton GhJAZ2 gene encodes the Jasmonate ZIM-domain 2 protein, a known repressor in the jasmonic acid signaling pathway and negatively regulates fiber initiation. In this study, we designed a gRNA that simultaneously targets GhJAZ2 homologs and assembled it into the CRISPR vector (pHSE401). Subsequently, the construct (pHSE401-gRNA) was transformed into cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) using an Agrobacterium-mediated in planta transformation strategy, targeting the shoot apical meristem as the primary site of transformation. Sanger sequencing analysis revealed consistent single-base pair indels at the targeted site across both A and D sub-genomes, with edited T1 progenies showing both inherited and newly introduced indels at the targeted loci. Fiber analysis of edited lines compared to the control revealed a significant (p < .05) enhancement in lint percentage (≤13.74%) and fiber length (≤16.91%). This study demonstrated the effective application of CRISPR/Cas9 for targeted trait improvement in cotton, offering GhJAZ2-edited lines that can be advanced to develop transgene-free cultivars with improved fiber traits.
Respiratory Burst Oxidase Homologs (RBOHs) serve as core regulatory components in plant responses to abiotic stress, with their mediated reactive oxygen species (ROS) signaling playing a crucial role in plant adaptation to environmental challenges. This study identified 10 SbRBOH genes distributed across seven chromosomes in the sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) genome. Phylogenetic analysis revealed species-specific evolution within this gene family. Expression pattern analysis showed significantly higher SbRBOHG expression in root tissues, suggesting its potential involvement in root stress responses. Multiple sequence alignment and structural modeling revealed that SbRBOHG shares 64.79% amino acid sequence identity with Arabidopsis AtRBOHD, with highly conserved three-dimensional conformation. Functional studies demonstrated that heterologous overexpression of SbRBOHG in Arabidopsis enhanced plant tolerance to aluminum stress, accompanied by increased ROS accumulation in roots. Protein interaction assays (yeast two hybrid and bimolecular fluorescence complementation) further confirmed direct interaction between SbRBOHG and the kinase SbBIK1. RT-qPCR analysis also showed that Arabidopsis plants heterologously overexpressing the SbRBOHG gene activate the expression of AtSTOP1, a key regulator of aluminum stress, and its downstream anion channel gene, AtALMT1. These studies have preliminarily established the functional role of the SbRBOHG gene in aluminum toxicity in sorghum. The research has elucidated the physical interactions between SbBIK1 and SbRBOHG at the molecular level, providing a theoretical basis and candidate gene resources for the genetic improvement of aluminum-tolerant sorghum varieties.
GMO testing laboratories operating within the current European Union (EU) regulatory framework governing the presence of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in food and feed (EC Reg. 1829/2003 and EC Reg. 1830/2003) perform a stepwise workflow from DNA extraction to quantification of genetically modified events. A very valuable intermediate step in guiding and optimizing this workflow is the screening phase, where any positives require the laboratory to proceed to the subsequent identification and quantification steps. Very often, however, samples with low GM content result positive at screening but then the GM component is not quantifiable, wasting time and resources. In order to overcome this issue, in this study a statistical framework was developed to predict the presence of soybean GM events based on the difference between the quantification cycle (Cq, also known as threshold cycle (Ct) of the Real time PCR technique) values observed from screening elements as cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter (P35S), the nopaline synthase terminator (T-nos), the 5-enolpyruvylshikimate -3-phosphate synthase gene (CP4 epsps) and lectin reference gene (Lec) (ΔCq values). The feasibility of this approach was successfully in-house verified on real life and spiked samples. This approach can be seen as a proof of concept to suggest how to optimize, on a statistical basis, the workflow of GMO testing laboratories that need to evaluate sample compliance with quantitative tests.
Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is a widely recognized medicinal and economic crop, valued primarily for the red stigmas that constitute its pharmaceutically active component. Flowering represents a critical agronomic trait, as it directly governs saffron yield. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying flowering regulation in saffron are not well studied. In this study, we identified a CsFT3-like-FD-AP1/LFY module involved in controlling flowering in saffron under indoor cultivation. Through transcriptomic and DAP-seq analysis, key floral identity genes CsAPETALA1 (CsAP1) and CsLEAFY (CsLFY) were identified as targets of the CsFT3-like-FD complex. Direct transcriptional regulation of CsAP1 and CsLFY by CsFT3-like-FD was further confirmed by dual-luciferase assays. Expression profiling revealed that CsAP1 is predominantly expressed in saffron leaves, tepals, and stamens, whereas CsLFY is mainly expressed in leaves and tepals. Both proteins localize to the nucleus. Ectopic expression of CsAP1 or CsLFY in Arabidopsis significantly accelerates flowering. Notably, CsAP1 overexpression additionally alters floral organ architecture, indicating its dual role in promoting flowering and regulating floral organ formation. Together, these findings underscore the essential role of the CsFT3-like-FD-AP1/LFY regulatory module in saffron and offer novel insights into flowering regulation in non-model monocot plants.
Positive controls are essential for detecting genetically modified (GM) crops; however, their acquisition and usage in analysis are limited. Moreover, event-specific markers make it difficult to screen numerous samples efficiently. In this study, we developed an introduced gene-based screening method for GM crops using standard plasmids as positive controls, combined with multiplex PCR (mPCR) and capillary electrophoresis (CE). Eighteen introduced gene sequences, four promoters (P-ubi10, P-act1, P-rbcS, and P-TSF1), six terminators (T-35S, T-pinII, T-E9, T-tml, T-hsp17.3, and T-H4), and eight target genes (pat, bar, CP4epsps, mEPSPS, aad1, gat4621, csr1-2, and DMO) were combined to construct standard plasmids for soybean and maize GM events. Three mPCR sets, 3-4 primer pairs each, were designed to simultaneously detect multiple introduced genes and distinguish GM samples from non-GM samples and crop events. Furthermore, CE demonstrated high resolution and sensitivity, resolving amplicons with minimal size differences and accurately detecting them at low concentrations. Overall, the approach used in this study provides a cost-effective and feasible screening platform for border inspection and monitoring of GM crops.
The sugar will eventually be exported transporters (SWEET) proteins play an important role in plant growth, development and stress responses. However, current research on the function of SWEET proteins in maize in response to salt stress is limited. In this study, we characterized the function of ZmSWEET11, a gene involved in salt stress response and autophagy induced by salt stress in plants. ZmSWEET11 is primarily expressed in the stems and is significantly induced by salt stress at maize seedlings stage. Subcellular localization analysis showed that ZmSWEET11 is localized to the plasma membrane. Gene silencing of ZmSWEET11 via the technology of virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) impaired maize salt tolerance and autophagic activity. Furthermore, we also determined that ZmSWEET11 interacts with autophagy-related (ATG) proteins (ZmATG2a, ZmATG2b, ZmATG8e and ZmATG18f). Overexpression of ZmSWEET11 in Arabidopsis led to enhanced salt tolerance and increased autophagosome abundance, whereas the atsweet11 mutant exhibited salt sensitivity. Taken together, our study demonstrated that ZmSWEET11 improves salt tolerance and autophagic activity both in maize and Arabidopsis seedlings, thereby mediating tolerance to abiotic stresses in plants. This is the first confirmation of a direct interaction between ZmSWEET11 and autophagic proteins, and shows that autophagy is closely with sugar transport in response to salt stress, thereby filling a gap in understanding the molecular mechanism of autophagy.
Global food security faces growing threats from substantial crop losses attributable to insect damage, pathogenic diseases, and herbicide-related impacts. Developing new tools to enhance crop production has become a critical challenge. The CRISPR/Cas system represents a breakthrough in precision genome editing that operates without requiring transgene integration, fundamentally transforming both plant science research and crop enhancement strategies. However, the application of this approach in five major crops (rice, wheat, maize, potato, and soybean), faces hurdles stemming from public acceptance and regulatory uncertainty. This review provides a systematic analysis of CRISPR/Cas technology applications for developing resistance against insects, diseases, and herbicides in essential food crops. We evaluate both the promising potential and significant challenges of this technology, particularly off-target effects and environmental safety. Furthermore, we investigate the evolving regulatory frameworks for gene editing crops across different countries, as regulatory clarity represents a critical determinant for their commercial development.
Sugarcane is a globally important crop, widely used in both the food industry and biofuel production. Weed infestations can significantly reduce its productivity, and to address this challenge, herbicides such as glyphosate are commonly applied. Glyphosate acts as a structural analog of phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), inhibiting the enzyme 5-enolpyruvylshikimate-3-phosphate synthase (EPSPS), thereby disrupting the shikimate pathway and impairing the biosynthesis of essential aromatic amino acids required for plant growth and development. However, the limited tolerance of sugarcane to glyphosate restricts herbicide application to doses that are often insufficient for effective weed control. Previous studies have shown that amino acid substitutions in the EPSPS enzyme, particularly the T102I/P106A (TIPA) mutations, can confer glyphosate resistance in plants. In this study, we evaluated whether a specific mutation in the endogenous ScEPSPS gene could enhance glyphosate tolerance in sugarcane without compromising morphological, physiological, and biometric parameters evaluated under greenhouse conditions. The mutated gene was constitutively overexpressed in transgenic sugarcane plants, which survived glyphosate concentrations as high as 5% (v/v of the commercial formulation, 106.5 mM of glyphosate acid equivalent). Molecular analyses revealed approximately 25- to 80-fold overexpression of the transgene in resistant lines compared with non-transgenic controls. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) quantification showed elevated levels of phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan 14 days after herbicide application in plants overexpressing the mutated ScEPSPS. Although the mutation affected certain histological and physiological parameters, biometric assessments indicated that the overall phenotype remained largely unchanged. The successful overexpression of the mutated endogenous ScEPSPS gene represents a promising biotechnological strategy to enhance glyphosate tolerance in sugarcane without compromising plant growth and development under greenhouse conditions.
