Researchers and practitioners have long utilized self-regulation interventions to address behavioral needs for students with and at-risk for disabilities; however, these interventions are often adult rather than student-directed. As such, students may lose opportunities to develop critical self-awareness and decision-making skills associated with improved self-regulation and behavior. In this U.S. study, we executed a nonconcurrent multiple-baseline across participants design with three high school students with autism spectrum disorder to test GoalSetGo, a new self-regulation intervention designed to promote student agency and decision-making in the intervention design process. Findings indicate that practitioners were able to implement GoalSetGo with their students with a high degree of fidelity, and two of the three students demonstrated immediate and yet short-term improvements in academic engagement. Social validity ratings provided by both students and practitioners indicated strong usability, feasibility, and acceptability. Implications for research and practice, limitations, and future directions are also discussed.
Although the effectiveness of function-based interventions in meeting the behavioral support needs of students with intellectual and developmental disabilities has been explored extensively, the social validity of function-based interventions from the perspective of students with intellectual and developmental disabilities has received less attention in the research literature. Therefore, our purpose was to conduct a systematic literature review of single-case function-based intervention research studies conducted in PK–12 U.S. school settings between 2006 and 2022 to understand the prevalence of the participation of students with intellectual and developmental disabilities in social validity assessments. We identified 142 reports that met our inclusion criteria. Of those, only 11 included social validity assessments involving students with intellectual and developmental disabilities, suggesting a critical need to incorporate student voice in function-based intervention and explore meaningful social validity assessment practices for this student population.
Because research has shown that strong academic instruction also supports classroom behavior, this meta-analysis examined the empirical evidence supporting the use of instructional choice as a classroom management strategy. We aimed to describe the characteristics of the literature base, calculate the average effect of instructional choice on classroom behavior, and identify the variables that contributed to heterogeneity within findings. We searched for published and gray literature across seven databases. Studies eligible for inclusion (a) took place in grades K-12 educational settings, (b) used instructional choice as the primary intervention, (c) measured student behavioral outcomes, and (d) were conducted using a single-case research design. The analysis includes 34 studies, including 89 individual students and 170 cases. We found instructional choice significantly increased desired classroom behaviors (log response ratio [ LRR ] = .186, 95% confidence interval [CI] = [.042, .330]), but did not significantly decrease challenging behaviors ( LRR = −.468, 95% CI = [−1.1, .163]). Moderator analyses indicated instructional choice is associated with significantly larger increases in behavior for secondary students and when preference assessments are not given. Primary limitations included unexplained heterogeneity and evolving procedures for conducting single-case meta-analyses. Implications for research and practice are discussed.
This systematic review and meta-analysis synthesized the body of research on behavioral interventions for improving group engagement. Fifty studies were included ( n = 10 group designs; n = 40 single case designs [SCDs]). Most research on interventions to improve group engagement was conducted in elementary and middle school general education settings. Class-Wide Function-Related Intervention Teams ( n = 6), the Good Behavior Game ( n = 6), Tootling ( n = 8), and multicomponent approaches ( n = 9) were the most commonly reported intervention types. Antecedent strategies that were most commonly embedded in behavioral interventions to increase group engagement were goal setting ( n = 29), precorrections ( n = 24), and teaming ( n = 15). Consequence strategies included group contingencies ( n = 34), points ( n = 21), tangible rewards ( n = 35), and teacher-delivered praise ( n = 24). Meta-analyses of the effect size estimates from SCD studies (SMD = 2.28) and group design studies ( g = 1.69) indicated an overall large and positive effect of the included interventions on group engagement. This effect was not moderated by grade level, inclusion of students with disabilities, number of antecedent or consequence components, or inclusion of a group contingency. Implications for researchers and practitioners are discussed.
In 2017, Zirkel provided a comprehensive analysis of the judicial rulings related to Functional Behavioral Assessments (FBAs) and Behavior Intervention Plans (BIPs). Since then, the COVID-19 pandemic and the Supreme Court’s Endrew F. decision reshaped the special education landscape, while reaffirming the centrality of a free appropriate public education (FAPE) under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in the United States. Yet, the vague language of the IDEA for FBAs and BIPs has remained unchanged. This article provides an updated analysis of the judicial case law on FBA-BIPs, focusing on the outcomes of the rulings overall and longitudinally as well as the component categories of entitlement, appropriateness, and implementation. The discussion includes recommendations that differentiate the legal parameters of these judicial rulings from proactive best practices that tend to mitigate litigation and promote effective student outcomes.
This single-case design meta-analysis examined the effects of self-management (SM) strategies on academic engagement in autistic students. Prior meta-analyses reported positive outcomes but did not account for the nested structure of single-case designs. Using multilevel modeling, we addressed this limitation and examined moderators of implementation practices. Eligible studies were peer-reviewed, published in English, school-based, included at least one autistic participant, used a single-case design with a baseline and intervention phase, employed time intervals for SM, and targeted positive outcomes. We searched ProQuest, EBSCO, and Web of Science through March 10, 2024. Risk of bias was assessed using the SCD RoB tool. 14 studies (29 participants) met inclusion criteria; SM increased academic engagement by 49.87% ( SE = 4.33, 95% CI = [39.76, 59.59], p < .001). Variability existed across participants and studies, with 9 studies (17 participants) contributing to moderator analyses. Classroom subject, classroom type, technology-based prompting, and the time interval of SM did not significantly explain variability. Limitations include small sample sizes, exclusion of three studies due to missing information, and high risk of bias in assessors’ knowledge of study phase. Overall, SM has the potential of being a flexible strategy supporting autistic students’ academic engagement.
Age-appropriate use of social skills throughout a student’s K-12 career has been linked to a variety of favorable academic and behavioral outcomes. Delays in social skill development are often present in the secondary setting, especially among at-risk students, and research has highlighted 9th grade as a key transition period to address social skills due to the demands of high school. This U.S. study employed a pre- and post-test control group design within one high school implementing Tier 1 School-Wide Positive Behavior Supports and Interventions to fidelity to examine if involvement in supplemental social skill lessons targeted for 9th grade students resulted in increased teacher and/or student perceptions of social competence related to the demands of the high school setting. Results from this study indicate the supplemental lessons were effective for all 9th grade students, and hold promise for students at risk of social, emotional, or behavioral challenges, and students with disabilities according to teacher report. Alternatively, self-report student data was not significant. Teachers found the lessons socially valid and feasible to implement. Implications and future research are discussed.
Cultural responsiveness (CR) is a core principle of behavioral interventions and supports (BIS), yet challenges exist in operationalizing and assessing this important construct. First, there is a lack of rigorously developed, reliable, and valid measures of CR. Second, although CR is relevant to every society, little is known about how it manifests in non-Western cultural contexts. In this study, we present the development and validation of Cultural Responsiveness in Chinese Psychological Behavior Practices (CR-CPBP), an instrument designed to assess cultural competence as a foundational step toward CR in BIS in China. The development process follows the PROMIS (R) Instrument Development and Validation Scientific Standards and involves five phases: item development, content validation with Chinese BIS experts, content validation with Chinese parents of children who received BIS services, cognitive interviews with Chinese BIS practitioners, and psychometric evaluation. The process results in a reliable and valid 37-item self-report survey. The study has implications for research and practice, including how to use rigorous, mixed methods and involve key stakeholders to develop survey instruments and how to operationalize and assess CR within a specific cultural and social context.
This study explored discipline inequities for Latino/a/e students using the Vulnerable Decision Point (VDP) approach on a national scale, considering contextual differences across school levels and comparing patterns of disparities with those of non-Latino/a/e Black and White students. We found that most schools do not have significant office discipline referral (ODR) disparities for Latino/a/e students. In addition, we found that disparities for Latino/a/e students are more common in high schools than in elementary and middle schools. In the schools that had significant disparities for Latino/a/e students, classrooms were the most common location for ODR disparities across settings. However, the behaviors for which teachers over-referred Latino/a/e students differed by school level. School-level disparity patterns are discussed in the context of team decision-making, informing responsive and sustaining interventions, and research considerations.
The Good Behavior Game (GBG) is an effective classroom management intervention that encourages teachers to implement strategies that increase academically engaged behaviors and decrease challenging behaviors. Although the GBG literature demonstrates positive effects across various settings and participants, limited studies have explored the impact of the GBG on students with extensive support needs (ESN). This study aimed to expand the literature by using a single-case multiple-probe baseline design to investigate the impact of the GBG on students with ESN in inclusive elementary classrooms in the Mountain West region of the U.S. Findings indicate that students with ESN demonstrated an overall increase in academically engaged behaviors and a decrease in challenging behaviors across all participants. The GBG also increased the number of positive statements general educators gave directed toward their students with ESN. We discuss several implications for future practice and research related to positive behavioral support for students with ESN in general education classrooms.
Positive greetings at the door (PGD) is a proactive classroom management strategy designed to target classroom transitioning into learning or an instructional activity. Positive greetings at the door help students engage in academic behaviors and reduce disruptive behaviors (DBs) that can otherwise delay the start of classroom instruction. This study used a concurrent multiple baseline design to evaluate the effects of a combined PGD and behavior-specific praise (BSP) intervention on student academically engaged behavior (AEB) and DB across three general education classrooms in the southern United States. Following the implementation of the combined PGD and BSP intervention, class-wide AEB immediately increased, and DB immediately decreased across all three classrooms. Additionally, teachers found the combined intervention to be socially acceptable. Implications for applied practice and research are discussed.
Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) is implemented in schools across geographic locales. Some existing research has explored variables influencing the sustainability of PBIS, yet there is a need to further investigate sustainable PBIS implementation in rural school communities and learn from the experiences of school PBIS team members. In this qualitative study, we examined the views of PBIS school team members (N = 32) from nine rural schools in one Midwestern U.S. state. We explored rural PBIS team members' perspectives during semi-structured focus groups on (a) variables contributing to their success with PBIS sustainment and (b) aspects of rurality that influenced PBIS implementation and sustainment. We used thematic analysis to identify themes from participant responses. Findings suggest that team members expressed a variety of facilitators contributing to sustainment, including having dynamic and data-informed frameworks, integration into their school and community, staffing, external support and collaboration, and necessary structures and resources. Team members also viewed their rurality as influential for the relationships between communities and schools, relationships within smaller schools, demographics and cultural responsiveness, and their need for tailoring of PBIS efforts. We discuss finding implications on the implementation and sustainment of PBIS in rural schools and communities.
Scale-up of evidence-based universal prevention programs for student behavior, such as School-Wide Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (SWPBIS), is important for improving K-12 education outcomes. While much research exists on factors affecting SWPBIS implementation, few studies have been conducted in rural schools. Here, we highlight practical lessons learned from a 3-year cluster-randomized trial in the U.S. studying implementation supports for the scale-up of SWPBIS in 40 rural K-12 schools in Idaho state. Schools in the trial either received Basic or Enhanced support (training only, or training + technical assistance and virtual learning community). Leveraging interview data from school implementers, event data collected during the trial, and School-wide Evaluation Tool data, we explore the following research questions: Which factors are frequently reported to impact SWPBIS implementation in rural schools, and what are actionable strategies that rural schools can use to overcome implementation challenges? Many of the factors that were reported to aid rural schools' implementation corroborate previous findings from non-rural schools (leadership support, staff buy-in, team collaboration, and external/ongoing support). Rural school stakeholders additionally valued receiving technical assistance from a provider in-person initially and having like-minded peer collaborators in the virtual learning cohort. Additional strategies to facilitate rural school SWPBIS implementation are discussed.
The purpose of this study was to expand the praise literature by examining K-12 teachers' preferences for praise and whether their acceptability for praise as a behavior management tool declines as grade level increases. Teacher acceptability and preferences for praise and reprimand were collected through the Teacher Praise and Reprimand Preference Survey (TPRPS), which is a survey adapted from the previously existing Adolescent Preference for Praise Survey (APPS). One hundred forty teachers from rural, suburban, and urban school districts in the U.S. completed the TPRPS survey. Results showed that as grade level increased, teachers reported praising students less frequently for academic work and appropriate behavior. Significant differences were found between elementary and secondary teachers' preferences for praising students' work and behavior. Compared with high school teachers, elementary teachers preferred to praise students out loud for doing their work, and elementary and middle school teachers preferred to reward students (out loud and quietly) with points, tickets, or token economies for work. This study provides insight into teachers' acceptability and preferences for praise and reprimand, and results may help consultants support teacher praise, especially among secondary teachers.
This cluster randomized controlled trial (RCT) study conducted in Southern Finland investigates the effectiveness of a universal mindfulness-based intervention (MBI) in classrooms in improving emotional well-being and regulation among adolescents with elevated inattentiveness and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity. The study comprised 342 students, divided into an MBI group, a relaxation control group, and an inactive control group. Positive affect (PA) and negative affect (NA) and emotion regulation strategies (rumination, acceptance, catastrophizing, positive reappraisal, and self-kindness) were measured at pre- (T0), postintervention (T9), and 26-week follow-up (T26). The intervention effects were analyzed among all participants and by gender and symptom type. Compared to the controls, there was a beneficial effect for the MBI group in relation to acceptance at T9; acceptance remained at the baseline level in the MBI group but decreased in the inactive control group. Conversely, in the inactive control group, rumination decreased at T9, and positive reappraisal increased at T26 compared to the MBI group. The MBI had no other detectable effects. The results on emotion regulation strategies varied by gender. These findings do not provide convincing evidence that universal MBIs improve emotional well-being among students with elevated inattentiveness and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity. More research is needed to determine whether the programs are beneficial for all adolescents, regardless of mental health status.
Although many studies have focused on increasing cooperation among children with autism, very little research exists on teaching children with autism to discriminate when they should and should not cooperate with an adult-delivered instruction. Refusing to cooperate with some instructions in some contexts could prevent a child from becoming a victim of sexual or other forms of abuse. In this U.S. study, we used behavioral skills training with video modeling to teach three children with autism to discriminate the conditions under which they should not follow an instruction to remove their shirt. A multiple-baseline design was used to evaluate the effects of the procedure. The procedures were effective for all participants. We discuss the results in terms of teaching general self-advocacy skills to this population.
Positive behavior interventions and supports (PBIS) is a tiered framework that enhances the quality of learning conditions and delivers social-emotional-behavioral interventions. Positive behavior interventions and supports uses a cascade system delivery that includes resources from the federal, state, district, and local levels, including policy and its associated funding. A relevant law that impacts PBIS implementation is the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA). Every Student Succeeds Act considers school quality in required state-level plans and directly references multitier system of support (MTSS) and PBIS. This study analyzed the content of Section 6.1.C of U.S. state-level plans that address the reduction of bullying, overuse of discipline that removes students from the classroom, and the use of aversive behavioral interventions that compromise student health and safety. Of interest was how plans referenced PBIS/MTSS, or any tiered system. We implemented a text analysis using a consensual agreement coding process to reveal patterns. The analysis suggested that: (a) states had unique profiles of policy and strategies, (b) structuring the plans to address specific school conditions directly may yield a more intentional plan design, (c) the most frequently referenced strategy was state-sponsored products and resources, and (d) PBIS/MTSS was referenced in most narratives, but not always as a systemic way to organize interventions.
Behavioral parent training (BPT) interventions are an efficacious method to improve child disruptive behaviors and reduce parenting stress by teaching caregivers evidence-based techniques to address challenging behaviors across natural routines. Some evidence suggests BPT is less efficacious among families with significant socioeconomic (SE) stressors. The aim of the current study was to examine relationships among cumulative SE risk and BPT homework completion, child challenging behaviors, and parenting stress after a group BPT known as HOT DOCS. Hypotheses were (1) SE risk would be negatively associated with participant homework completion and (2) SE risk would be negatively associated with child disruptive behaviors and parenting stress after intervention. The sample included 254 caregivers in the Southeastern U.S. who participated in a group BPT for caregivers of birth-to-5-year-old children. Caregivers self-reported on their homework engagement, their child's disruptive behavior, and their parenting stress. Results revealed a negative association between SE risk and homework completion and no association between SE Risk and child behavior or parenting stress outcomes. The findings suggest HOT DOCS may be efficacious for families across SE backgrounds, including those experiencing challenges completing active homework practice sessions.
School-based behavior analysts (SBBAs) are specially trained in the science of behavior, and their employment in school districts to support both students and other educators is growing. Despite behavior analysis being practiced in schools for over 60 years, very little is known about SBBAs, including their roles and responsibilities, needed supports, and their application of behavior science to educational settings. The current study used qualitative, grounded theory methodology to gather interview data from 15 current SBBAs in the United States to develop a model to assist with increasing understanding of these professionals in their roles as SBBAs. The generated model included the subcategories of role definition, contextual alignment, and support structures. In addition, these subcategories are situated within the context of social factors and perceptions as well as emotional responses and perceived efficacy. Implications for research and practice are discussed.
Direct behavior ratings (DBR) refer to a family of assessments that educators use to measure behavioral change. To facilitate interpretations of changes in student behavior, it is beneficial to measure rates of change over pre-determined spans of time. This pilot study estimated the score change variability and the change sensitivity of the DBR-Single Item Scales (DBR-SIS) for academic engagement and disruptive behavior in typical U.S. educational settings. A series of multivariate multilevel models (MMLMs) were fitted to an extant dataset of progress-monitoring observations for students identified with academic behavior and social behavior risk in grades 1 through 5. Rates of change in both academic engagement and disruptive behavior exhibited considerable between-student variability after 3-4 weeks of progress monitoring. Academic engagement was slightly more sensitive to capturing between-student differences in rates of change. Considerations for selecting certain single-item scales are discussed in addition to the utility of interpreting score change for decision-making purposes.
