Strongyloides spp. infecting felids remain largely understudied. To date, four Strongyloides species have been reported in felids worldwide: S. felis, S. planiceps, S. stercoralis, and S. tumefaciens. Most epidemiological studies performed in felids identified the parasites only to genus level. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of Strongyloides spp. in domestic cats (Felis catus), free-ranging Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), and European wildcats (Felis silvestris) from Switzerland, while providing detailed morphological and molecular characterization of the parasites. A total of 490 intestinal content and faecal samples (172 domestic cats, 261 lynx, and 57 wildcats) were analysed using Baermann and sedimentation-flotation techniques. Morphological measurements of Strongyloides spp. eggs, larvae and adults were recorded. Molecular identification involved conventional PCRs targeting the 18S rRNA and cox1 gene fragments, followed by Sanger sequencing, Oxford Nanopore Technologies (ONT) deep amplicon sequencing and bioinformatic analysis. The coproscopical prevalence of Strongyloides spp. in wild felids was 9.6% (25/261) in lynx and 7% (4/57) in wildcats, whereas in domestic cats it was 0.6% (1/172). All positive samples contained free first-stage rhabditiform larvae. Eight lynx samples additionally had larvated eggs and in three lynx and one wildcat, also rhabditiform adults were present. Morphological features were consistent with S. planiceps. Sanger sequencing mostly failed. ONT sequencing and phylogeny confirmed S. planiceps in 16 representative samples (12 lynx, three wildcats, one domestic cat) and revealed high intraspecific variability in the cox1 gene. Additionally, S. ratti sequences were detected in one wildcat. This study represents the first prevalence study with molecular characterization in wild felid populations globally, and the first identification of S. planiceps in Europe. A higher prevalence was observed in wild felids than in domestic pet cats. ONT deep amplicon sequencing proved to be a robust tool for identifying Strongyloides species from complex samples, overcoming the Sanger sequencing limitations.
This study reports the first record of Ornithocoris pallidus associated with a Hyacinth Macaw (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus) nest in the Brazilian Pantanal supported by integrative morphological and molecular identification. Ectoparasites associated with nests can compromise the health and development of birds that use reused cavities, such as the hyacinth macaw. Among these parasites, blood-feeding bugs of the Cimicidae family remain poorly studied in wild environments. Accordingly, the specimens were collected in February 2025 from a natural cavity containing a blue macaw chick and from a nest box occupied by muscovy duck (Cairina moschata). Identification was performed using light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy, following the diagnostic taxonomic key, as well as partial sequencing of the cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene. The observed morphological characteristics were consistent with Ornithocoris pallidus, including the presence of 1+1 long setae on the posterolateral margin of the pronotum, which is a diagnostic taxonomic character for the species. The obtained sequence (306 bp) showed 96.73% identity with sequences available in GenBank for the species. The results expand our knowledge of the distribution and host range of O. pallidus, in addition to contributing to previously unpublished molecular data on cimicids associated with Neotropical avifauna, reinforcing the importance of integrating the monitoring of threatened birds with parasitological assessment.
Anthropogenic environmental contamination, including ionizing radiation, can reshape host-parasite dynamics through direct and indirect ecological pathways, yet parasite communities in radioactively contaminated landscapes remain poorly characterized. Wildlife from the Chornobyl Exclusion Zone (CEZ) are chronically exposed to elevated ionizing radiation across a heterogeneous contamination gradient and human-abandoned landscape, offering a rare opportunity to examine host-parasite-environment interactions under long-term radiation exposure. We characterized pathogen and parasite communities in two sympatric wild canids, gray wolves (Canis lupus) and raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides), from the Polesye State Radiation Ecological Reserve, Belarus, and generated individual total 137Cs dose estimates to explore dose-infection relationships. Using fecal flotation, RT-qPCR, and serology, we identified 18 and 9 parasite taxa in wolves and raccoon dogs, respectively. Preliminary correlations between individual radiation dose and gastrointestinal parasite infection were uniformly variable. Parasite taxonomy and transmission strategy also appear to modulate dose-response direction in a host-specific manner. Thus, ecological differences between wolves and raccoon dogs may be more important than radiation alone in influencing parasite community structure. Our results establish foundational baseline data for future studies on CEZ canid parasite assemblages and underscore the complexity of disentangling radiation effects from ecological drivers in contaminated landscapes.
Gastrointestinal parasite assemblages are influenced by host compatibility, exposure, behavior, and environmental conditions; however, baseline data remain limited in Central Africa. We characterized gastrointestinal parasite morphotypes in 279 fecal samples collected from five wild mammal taxa at Lopé National Park and Makatamangoye, Gabon. Parasites were identified using flotation and sedimentation techniques and classified to the lowest morphologically defensible taxonomic level. The analysis included overall infection rates, infracommunity richness, sample-based rarefaction, and presence–absence community composition within localities and between host populations. After excluding unidentified structures, an ectoparasite, and a plant-parasitic nematode, 140/279 samples were tested positive (50.2%; 95% CI 44.2–56.2), resulting in the retention of 25 parasite taxa or morphotypes. Strongylid-type eggs (65 detections), Trichuris spp. (46), Bertiella spp. (24), Ascaris spp. (21) and Ternidens spp. (20) were the most frequently observed. Component-community richness ranged from four taxa in Pan troglodytes to 19 in Potamochoerus porcus. Differences among host populations within localities were apparent for both overall infection and infracommunity richness. Jaccard-based PERMANOVA revealed compositional differences among infected host samples at Lopé (pseudo-F = 2.40, p < 0.001) and Makatamangoye (pseudo-F = 2.24, p = 0.001), although caution is warranted due to heterogeneous dispersion at Lopé. Sørensen dissimilarity between localities within host taxa ranged from 0.33 to 0.73, often driven by nestedness-resultant differences. These findings provide a morphology-based inventory of gastrointestinal parasite assemblages, however, unequal sampling and limited taxonomic resolution prevent causal attribution to habitat disturbance or confirmation of zoonotic transmission. Further molecular characterization and replicated longitudinal sampling are needed.
Background The order Kinetoplastida comprises medically important parasites as well as numerous non-trypanosomatid lineages whose diversity and ecology remain poorly understood. Although studies in non-human primates (NHPs) have mainly focused on pathogenic trypanosomatids, little is known about the broader diversity of Kinetoplastida associated with wildlife. The present study aimed to characterize the diversity of Kinetoplastida detected in wild NHPs across Africa. Methods We analyzed 884 fecal samples collected from wild NHPs in three African countries (Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo and Senegal). Following nucleic acid extraction, samples were screened for Kinetoplastida using a broad-range quantitative PCR targeting the 28S rRNA gene. Positive samples were subjected to conventional PCR, sequencing and phylogenetic analysis. Results Kinetoplastida DNA was detected in 88 fecal samples from all study sites, with detection frequencies varying from 3.69% in the Democratic Republic of the Congo to 16.24% in the Republic of the Congo and 34.78% in Senegal. Phylogenetic analyses revealed a broad diversity of kinetoplastid lineages, predominantly affiliated with bodonid-related taxa, including clades closely related to Bodo saltans, Parabodo nitrophilus and Neobodo spp. One sequence clustered within a clade closely related to Dimastigella trypaniformis, whereas another group of sequences formed a clade related to Parabodo caudatus. A limited number of sequences also showed phylogenetic proximity to Trypanosomatidae lineages related to Trypanosoma, Leishmania and Leptomonas. Conclusions This study expands current knowledge of the diversity of Kinetoplastida detected in fecal samples from wild NHPs and highlights the value of non-invasive molecular approaches for investigating protist diversity in wildlife. The detection of Trypanosomatidae-related lineages in fecal samples represents an uncommon finding that deserves further investigation. Further studies combining complementary sample types, strain isolation and additional molecular approaches are needed to better understand the ecological significance of the detected lineages and their relationships with vertebrate hosts.
Body weights of hunted moose calves have markedly declined in southwestern Finland during this millennium, but the cause of this phenomenon is yet unknown. We studied whether the decline is associated with prevalence of parasites and diseases. For this purpose, we collected tissue samples (lung, heart, liver and faeces) from moose calves hunted in autumn in study area with declining calf body weights (N = 45) and in control area with no decline in body weight (N = 19). We compared the findings between regions and studied the relationship between carcass weight and parasitological and pathological parameters. The organ samples revealed infections by several parasites, including the lungworms Dictyocaulus capreolus and D. skrjabini, the cestode Taenia lynciscapreoli and the lancet liver fluke Dicrocoelium dendriticum. Parasitic infections of the digestive tract (strongylid nematodes, Moniezia sp., Eimeria sp.) and larvae of the meningeal worm Elaphostrongylus alces were observed by examining faecal samples. Inflammatory lesions in the membranes surrounding lung, heart and liver and in bile ducts occurred in all areas. We found that moose calves from the area with low and declining weight had a wider range of parasites and pathologies than calves from the control area. There was a negative correlation between total parasite and pathology burden and the carcass and heart weights. Parasite and disease burden was highest and weight parameters were lowest in the areas with the highest moose and total cervid densities.
Ticks are important vectors of zoonotic pathogens in Europe, but knowledge regarding the presence of Rickettsia spp. and Bartonella spp. in questing Ixodes ricinus in Norway remains limited. This study investigated the occurrence of these bacteria in ticks collected across the Norwegian distribution range of I. ricinus. A total of 564 adult ticks and 3930 nymphs (393 pools) collected in seven counties were analysed by real-time PCR. Rickettsia spp. were detected only in adult ticks, with an overall prevalence of 3.9 % (22/564). Infected ticks were identified in only two counties, Østfold and Agder, with a prevalence of 11.2 and 10.9 %, respectively. Species-specific analysis confirmed R. helvetica in 77.3 % (17/22) of the positive samples. Rickettsia spp. were not detected in any nymph pools. Bartonella spp. were detected in 0.5 % (3/564) of adult ticks, representing the first report of Bartonella spp. in questing I. ricinus in Norway. Infected ticks were found in three counties, Østfold, Telemark, and Nordland. Bartonella spp. were not detected in any nymph pools. These findings demonstrate that Rickettsia spp. and Bartonella spp. are present in questing adult ticks in Norway, highlighting the importance of continued surveillance of emerging tick-borne pathogens in northern Europe.
Several bat species have been reported as hosts of Leishmania parasites in the Americas. It has been suggested that some bat species may be potential reservoirs of Leishmania species due to their contact with sand fly vectors. This study aimed to evaluate the prevalence and associated factors of Leishmania mexicana in two populations of Nyctinomops laticaudatus in Yucatan, Mexico. Cave-dwelling bats from the municipalities of Calcehtok and Homún were captured bimonthly in 2024. Blood samples of N. laticaudatus were analyzed by PCR to amplify the ITS region. Leishmania mexicana DNA was found in 66.5% (141/212) of the bats. Logistic regression models indicate that bats captured in September and November had a lower probability of infection in comparison with those captured in January through July. In addition, bats captured in Homún had a higher probability of being infected than those captured in Calcehtok. In this study, we report L. mexicana in N. laticaudatus for the first time in the Americas. The seasonal variation of the prevalence of L. mexicana in N. laticaudatus was similar to that documented in humans, small rodents and vectors in the Yucatan Peninsula. Our findings demonstrated the presence of L. mexicana DNA in blood samples from a high proportion of bats throughout the sampling year. This may suggest a frequent interaction of bats with vectors and that N. laticaudatus may be a suitable host for L. mexicana in the region.
The European flying squid Todarodes sagittatus Lamarck is a widely distributed ommastrephid cephalopod in the Northeast Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea, yet its parasite fauna remains poorly documented in theMediterranean Sea. In this study, two cestode larvae species infecting T. sagittatus from the Algerian coast (Western Mediterranean) were investigated using an integrative approach combining morphological observations and molecular analyses. A total of 63 squids were examined for parasitic infection. Cestodes in plerocercoid stage were detected in 31 individuals (prevalence of 46%), primarily located within the gastrointestinal tract, including the stomach, intestine, and caecum.. Morphological features of the larvae were consistent with members of the order Phyllobothriidea but did not allow identification to the species level. Molecular analysis of the D1–D3 region of the 28S rDNA revealed two distinct larval lineages belonging to the genus Crossobothrium Linton, 1889. One lineage showed 100% sequence identity with the adult cestode Crossobothrium dohrnii (Oerley, 1885), a parasite of hexanchid sharks, confirming the identity of these larvae as plerocercoids of C. dohrnii. The second lineage clustered within the Crossobothrium clade but could not be assigned to a known species and is therefore referred to as Crossobothrium sp. The occurrence of these larvae in T. sagittatus, together with ecological data on squid diet and predator-prey relationships, suggests that this cephalopod acts as an intermediate or paratenic host in the life cycle of hexanchid cestodes. Infection likely occurs through predation on crustaceans acting as first intermediate hosts, while transmission to definitive hosts occurs when infected squids are consumed by sharks. These findings provide the first molecular identification of cestode larvae from T. sagittatus in the Mediterranean and highlight the important role of ommastrephid squids in the trophic transmission of elasmobranch parasites in pelagic ecosystems.
Gut protists are an important part of the microbial community that is often overlooked or limited to certain "flagship" species, mainly parasites. This also applies to Eurasian beavers (Castor fiber), which act as aquatic engineers in riparian habitats and have been identified as potential reservoirs of the well-known intestinal protist parasite - Giardia intestinalis. In this study, we focus on exploring protistan diversity in Eurasian beavers from freshly collected stool samples using molecular methods, including targeted barcoding of specific parasitic groups (Giardia, Cryptosporidium and Microsporidia) and general metabarcoding of the V4 region of 18S rRNA on the Illumina MiSeq platform. Two individuals were tested positive for Cryptosporidium spp. using the targeted barcoding. The metabarcoding approach revealed that the gut community was predominantly composed of gut commensals, Blastocystis, and trichomonads, found in every individual. More detailed investigation of Blastocystis confirmed the potential existence of a specific beaver subtype. Colpodellids and parasitic Eimeria spp. were only occasionally present. Geographic location of the host, unlike sex, has a significant impact on gut microbiota composition, though more research is needed due to limited sampling. Finally, we tested a new primer set for amplifying the V4 region of 18S rRNA, which shows promise for improving the detection of Metamonada protists in the gut samples.
Previously, only a single Myxidium species, Myxidium cf. notopterum from Notopterus notopterus, and two unidentified species from Tor tambroides and Barbonymus gonionotus had been reported in Malaysia. In the present study, three additional species, Myxidium acutum n. sp., Myxidium truncatum n. sp., and Myxidium orbiculare n. sp. were described from the gallbladders of freshwater fishes, Labiobarbus leptocheilus, Trichopodus pectoralis and Channa gachua, respectively, in Malaysia. Myxidium acutum n. sp. possessed elongated, fusiform spores with tapered ends and 6-7 valvular striations, measuring 12.5 ± 0.6 μm in length, 5.1 ± 0.4 μm in width, and 4.3 ± 0.4 μm in thickness. The polar capsules were equal and slightly pyriform, measuring 3.3 ± 0.3 μm × 2.7 ± 0.2 μm, each containing a tubule with 4-5 coils. Myxidium truncatum n. sp. exhibited elongated, fusiform spores with truncated ends and five valvular striations, measuring 11.7 ± 0.6 μm × 4.4 ± 0.3 μm × 3.8 ± 0.3 μm. Its pyriform polar capsules measured 3.8 ± 0.3 μm × 2.7 ± 0.2 μm with four coils. Myxidium orbiculare n. sp. had ellipsoidal, slightly concave spores with truncated ends and seven valvular striations, measuring 13.4 ± 0.4 μm × 6.5 ± 0.4 μm × 5.5 ± 0.3 μm, with rounded polar capsules bearing papilla-like tips (4.1 ± 0.3 μm × 3.3 ± 0.2 μm), each containing a tubule with four coils. Morphological, molecular, and phylogenetic analyses supported their recognition as new species and extended the known diversity and geographic distribution of Myxidium in Malaysia.
Chewing lice are highly host-specific, permanent ectoparasites of birds. This feature potentially places lice infesting endangered hosts at an even greater risk of extinction than the hosts themselves. Despite this ecological significance, research on chewing lice parasitizing endangered birds in the Republic of Korea remains limited. This study aims to document and provide taxonomic information on the chewing lice species infesting the wild population of the endangered Black-faced Spoonbill (Platalea minor) in Korea. In July 2025, five spoonbills were examined for ectoparasites. Collected specimens were morphologically identified using light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), focusing on key diagnostic characters. Additionally, we performed a phylogenetic analysis and compared genetic distances. Based on the morphological and molecular analyses, our specimens were identified as Ibidoecus plataleae (Denny, 1842). This study represents the first report of I. plataleae from the Black-faced Spoonbill in Korea.
Trypanosoma lewisi is a blood parasite of wild rodents increasingly recognised as an emerging zoonotic pathogen associated with atypical human trypanosomiasis. However, epidemiological and molecular data from major Indonesian metropolitan areas remain limited. This study investigated the prevalence and molecular identity of T. lewisi in urban wild rats from Surabaya, Indonesia's second-largest city. A total of 100 wild rats, comprising Rattus norvegicus (n = 54) and Rattus tanezumi (n = 46), were captured across five geographic zones between February and August 2025. Infection was assessed by wet-mount examination and Dip Quick-stained blood smears, followed by PCR amplification of the ITS1 region of ribosomal DNA, Sanger sequencing, and Bayesian phylogenetic analysis. Overall microscopy-detectable T. lewisi clade prevalence was 13.0% (13/100; 95% CI: 7.1-21.2%), with infected rats detected in four of five sampling zones. All successfully sequenced samples were placed within the well-supported T. lewisi clade (PP = 1.0) in Bayesian phylogenetic analysis. These findings provide the first molecular evidence of T. lewisi circulating in urban wild rats in Surabaya and demonstrate that synanthropic rodents may serve as important reservoirs of this zoonotic parasite in densely populated Indonesian cities. The study highlights the need to incorporate rodent-borne trypanosomes into One Health surveillance frameworks in urban environments.
Giardia and Cryptosporidium are important causes of diarrhoeal disease in humans, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, with several species and genotypes capable of zoonotic transmission. Central Laikipia, Kenya, represents a shared landscape characterised by close human-livestock-wildlife interactions. Traditional pastoral systems and commercial ranching coexist alongside high wildlife diversity offering high potential for interspecies disease transmission. Despite this, molecular data on protozoan parasites in animal hosts remains limited across the region. We collected faecal samples opportunistically from six wildlife and four livestock species over three years in Laikipia and screened them using molecular methods to investigate the sample prevalence and genetic diversity of Giardia and Cryptosporidium. Giardia occurrence was consistently high, ranging from 21% in in samples from 2022 to 27% in samples from 2025, whereas Cryptosporidium occurrence remained low (0–5%) over the same period. Multilocus sequencing was partially successful for a subset of samples at the beta-giardin, triosephosphate isomerase, and glutamate dehydrogenase genes. This identified predominantly livestock-adapted Giardia duodenalis assemblage E, with much lower occurrence of potentially zoonotic assemblages AI and AII in livestock. Sequencing of the 18S SSU gene identified multiple Cryptosporidium species These were mostly ungulate specific species but did include the potentially zoonotic C. ubiquitum. The detection of both ungulate-specific and possibly zoonotic genotypes highlights possible One Health implications within this shared landscape. While potentially zoonotic genotypes indicate there may be public health risk through animal-to-human transmission, the predominance of ungulate-specific genotypes suggests higher potential for animal-to-animal transmission cycles, with potential indirect effects on human health through impacts on livestock productivity and growth.
Cytauxzoon banethi is one of the least characterized members of the genus Cytauxzoon and has so far been reported only from two European wildcats (Felis silvestris) in Romania. Consequently, its host range and geographic distribution remain poorly understood. In the present study, we molecularly characterized a Cytauxzoon isolate detected in a free-ranging striped hyena (Hyaena hyaena) from western Iran. Genomic DNA extracted from blood was analyzed by PCR amplification and sequencing of partial 18S rRNA and mitochondrial cytochrome b (cytb) genes. The 18S rRNA sequence was identical to published C. manul sequences and highly similar to several other Cytauxzoon species, confirming the limited species-level resolution of this conserved marker. In contrast, direct comparison of the cytb sequence with the available C. banethi reference sequence revealed only five synonymous nucleotide substitutions across 1,089 aligned positions (99.5% identity). Phylogenetic analysis of the cytb dataset placed the obtained isolate within the C. banethi lineage as the sister taxon to C. manul, supporting its identification as C. banethi. To the best of our knowledge, this represents the first molecular detection of C. banethi in a member of the family Hyaenidae, the first record in a non-felid feliform host, the first report from Iran and Asia, and the first detection of this species outside Europe. These findings expand the currently recognized host range and geographic distribution of C. banethi and emphasize the importance of multilocus molecular approaches and broader wildlife surveillance for improving our understanding of the diversity and evolution of Cytauxzoon species in general, and for better assessing the genetic diversity and taxonomic boundaries of C. banethi.
Tick-borne diseases constitute a major group of emerging vector-borne infections and represent a growing public health concern in many European countries. In Europe, the most clinically significant agents transmitted by Ixodes ricinus are tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) and Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, the causative agents of tick-borne encephalitis and Lyme borreliosis, respectively. Ixodes ricinus also serves as a vector for other pathogenic microorganisms, including louping-ill virus (LIV) and Anaplasma phagocytophilum. Various endosymbionts, such as Wolbachia pipientis and Midichloria mitochondrii, are also found in ticks. In this study, we assessed the prevalence of TBEV, LIV, B. burgdorferi s. l., A. phagocytophilum, W. pipientis, and M. mitochondrii in 3437 I. ricinus ticks collected from five locations in Norway. The estimated pool prevalence of TBEV ranged from 0 to 0.4% in nymphs, while the prevalence in adults ranged from 0 to 7.1%. In contrast, no LIV was detected. Borrelia burgdorferi s. l. was detected at all sites, with prevalences ranging from 3.4% to 14.3% (overall prevalence of 5.7%), representing four genotypes (B. afzelii, B. garinii, B. valaisiana and B. burgdorferi sensu stricto). Estimated pooled prevalence of A. phagocytophilum was 5.1% in nymphs, while the overall prevalence in adults was 19.8%. In adult ticks, W. pipientis and M. mitochondrii occurred at overall prevalences of 11.0% and 84.1%, respectively. In only 12.3% of ticks, none of the agents investigated were detected. However, 32.6% of the ticks showed co-occurrence of infectious agents and/or the endosymbionts. Thus, this underscores the need for improved understanding of microbial interactions influencing tick-borne disease outcomes.
Numbers of European bison (Bison bonasus) reintroduction programmes are increasing across Europe. Investigating potential health risks related to translocations is crucial for the long-term success of such programmes. Parasitological analyses play a central role in monitoring the health status and assessing disease transmission risks during the translocation of European bison herds. This study monitored the endoparasite fauna of both a newly relocated European bison herd (n = 7 animals), and of the neighbouring suckler cow herd (n = 25 animals), over the course of one year. The aim of the study was to compare the parasite populations of these two closely related ruminant species kept under similar management conditions, and to assess the risk of parasite transmission by shared grazing areas. From April 2023 to March 2024, faecal samples from both herds were analysed monthly, using direct detection methods such as sedimentation, combined sedimentation-flotation, Baermann funnel, McMaster, and copro-antigen tests (total n = 72 samples). A total of seven helminth groups and four protozoan genera were thereby identified, with a richer parasite diversity in the bison samples. Eggs of Trichuris spp., Nematodirus spp., Moniezia spp., and cysts of Giardia sp. were exclusively shed by the European bison. On the other hand, cysts of Buxtonella sp. were only found in cattle samples. Paramphistomidae eggs and Cryptosporidium spp. were significantly more frequently detected in cattle samples. Both, the suckler cow and the European bison herd, showed constant infection with gastrointestinal strongylids, but the faecal egg counts were tenfold higher in the bison. Infections with Eimeria spp., Strongyloides spp., and Dicrocoelium dendriticum were detected in both species, and no lungworm larvae were detected in either species. Further investigations should include identification of the parasites to species level, and the parasitological monitoring in the two herds should be continued to assess if the observed differences persist or disappear over time.
This study aimed to determine whether the interspecific copro-foraging behaviour of potential intermediate host rodents can prevent the summer egg loss of the Arctic-originated cestode parasite, Echinococcus multilocularis. Red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and golden jackal (Canis aureus) scats were used as bait under camera traps to assess rodents' approach or avoidance activity. Of the 6 detected rodent taxa, common voles (Microtus arvalis) and European wood mice (the morphologically similar species, wood mouse, Apodemus sylvaticus and yellow-necked mouse, A. flavicollis) approached and contacted the baits most frequently, primarily during autumn and winter. A higher seed content in the scat seemed to attract the common voles. Contrary to our hypothesis, autumn hoarding activity appears to foster the transmission of E. multilocularis, while the weakest link in its life cycle, the summer drought, remains less protected.
