Calabria is the Italian peninsular region richest in endemic plant species, with Centaurea (Asteraceae) being the most species-rich genus. This study aims to fill key gaps in the integrative taxonomic assessment of seven Calabrian endemics relative to the Apennine-Balkan Centaurea deusta s.str., by providing comparative SEM data on cypselae and pappi and applying explicit niche-overlap tests to these taxa. The highest levels of niche overlap were found among species separated by geographic barriers, while most species selecting similar climatic conditions are allopatric. Overall, the Calabrian endemics occupy suboptimal portions of the C. deusta niche, generally in more thermophilic or more orophilic conditions. Only C. pentadactyli shows a niche that is more divergent from that of C. deusta s.str. than expected by chance. Micromorphological characters of cypselae and pappi proved to be informative and of potential taxonomic relevance. By applying Wettstein's tesseract approach to make the assignment of taxonomic ranks more objective, we conclude that C. aspromontana, C. calabra, C. ionica, C. poeltiana, C. sarfattiana, and C. scillae are best treated at subspecific rank, and the necessary new combinations under C. deusta are here provided. In contrast, based on currently available evidence, C. pentadactyli meets the criteria for retention as a distinct species.
The genus Nyctinomops Miller (1902) comprises small to medium sized, large-eared, free-tailed aerial insectivorous bats widely distributed from southern United States to northern Argentina. Five species are currently recognized for the genus: Nyctinomops aurispinosus (Peale, 1848), N. femorosaccus (Merriam, 1889), N. macrotis (Gray, 1839), N. mbopicuare (Barquez et al., 2023) and N. laticaudatus (Geoffroy St.-Hilaire, 1805). At least six subspecies have been historically described for N. laticaudatus including N. l. ferrugineus (Goodwin, 1954), N. l. yucatanicus (Miller, 1902), N. l. europs (Allen, 1899), N. l. macarenensis (Barriga-Bonilla, 1965), and N. l. gracilis (Wagner, 1843) and comprehensive character-based analyses are largely missing to test the variation within these putative populational/species complexes. Here we use three mitochondrial markers (Cytochrome b, Cytochrome oxidase I, and Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide dehydrogenase subunit 1), and two nuclear markers (Signal transducer and activator of transcription 5 A and the Recombination activating gene 2) to assess the phylogenetic relationships within Nyctinomops including a dense geographic sample of N. laticaudatus, comprising most of its known geographic distribution. Bayesian analyses recovered a novel phylogenetic hypothesis for the internal relationships of Nyctinomops supporting a non-monophyletic arrangement for N. laticaudatus (stricto sensu) comprising three independent lineages, one corresponding to the subspecies N. l. yucatanicus from USA, Mexico, and Central America, another including the nominate form N. laticaudatus (hereafter N. laticaudatus stricto sensu), and a third lineage with individuals from the Amazon basin. Based on our molecular data the recently described N. mbopicuare is nested in N. laticaudatus s.s. clade and may be a junior synonymous or a subspecies of N. laticaudatus.
Understanding the mechanisms underlying species diversification remains a central question in evolutionary biology, with ongoing debates about the relative roles of natural selection, genetic drift, and geographic isolation in shaping biodiversity. Nierembergia linariifolia exhibits intraspecific variation recognized as taxonomic varieties. These varieties are distinguished by vegetative and floral traits and are distributed across lowland and highland areas of different ecoregions in South America. In this study, we integrate ecological niche and genetic analyses to investigate diversification drivers across N. linariifolia populations. Specifically, we assessed whether differentiation among varieties is related to current climatic conditions and explored the potential influence of Pleistocene climatic fluctuations on their diversification. Current distribution models reveal a strong association between varietal differentiation, ecoregions, and altitudinal gradients, which is also reflected in species' bioclimatic envelope and climatic niche. Molecular dating indicates that the detected genetic divergences most likely occurred during the Early Pleistocene, preceding the diversification of the taxonomic varieties and suggesting that varietal divergence is more recent. Ecological niche models projected onto Pleistocene climatic scenarios show distinct responses to climate change among varieties, likely influencing their current diversification patterns. Overall, our findings support a relatively recent diversification process, consistent with ecological divergence probably driven by Pleistocene climatic fluctuations through a combination of allopatric, parapatric, and ecological processes.
Biodiversity knowledge gaps undermine biogeographical analyses, leading to biased interpretations with direct consequences for research, conservation and management. In Mexico, marine invertebrate diversity remains poorly documented due to historical physical, economic and social limitations. We quantified the taxonomic, spatial and temporal coverage of digitally accessible records for Mexican marine invertebrates to identify biases, gaps and priorities for future surveys. We compiled 121,502 records representing 4642 species of sponges, cnidarians, echinoderms and molluscs from two open-access repositories (GBIF and OBIS). Taxonomic coverage was evaluated based on the historical accumulation of documented species and the annual number of records, providing a temporal perspective on taxonomic knowledge. Inventory and taxonomic completeness were estimated across 50 & times; 50 km grid cells to identify well-surveyed areas and temporal coverage was examined relative to 2024. Ignorance maps combining the above metrics were generated to highlight priority areas for sampling. Knowledge of marine invertebrates in Mexico has expanded since the 1930s, yet biodiversity data cover less than 35% of the study area and only a small fraction of cells qualifies as well-surveyed. Records remain strongly biased towards coastal and reef systems, while deep-sea and offshore environments are largely unsampled. Temporal gaps are also evident with many areas lacking recent records. These patterns reveal persistent and uneven knowledge shortfalls. Addressing them requires targeted surveys in poorly sampled marine-coastal and deep-sea environments, as well as re-surveys in sites not visited for decades where new discoveries and updated biodiversity baselines are most likely to be found.
Environmental DNA (eDNA) has expanded rapidly from proof-of-concept demonstrations to a widely used tool in biodiversity assessment, invasive species surveillance, fisheries management and conservation monitoring. This growth has been accompanied by numerous studies comparing the performance of eDNA against traditional survey techniques such as nets, electrofishing, traps and visual observations. These comparisons frequently conclude that eDNA is more sensitive or detects more taxa, often assuming that eDNA detections correspond to the same ecological or taxonomic entities observed by conventional methods. We argue that many perceived mismatches between eDNA and organism-based surveys can arise from a conceptual gap: eDNA detects molecular traces, not organisms. These traces are shaped by biological shedding, physical transport and degradation, as well as analytical processing during sampling, PCR, sequencing and taxonomic assignment. Consequently, eDNA and traditional surveys measure fundamentally different kinds of entities. We synthesize key insights across the eDNA literature and introduce a simplified "inference chain" that illustrates how biological, physical, and analytical filters transform DNA shed into the environment into a taxonomic detection. This framework clarifies why eDNA observations are inherently indirect, spatially and temporally integrated, and dependent on local environmental conditions and methodological decisions. Divergent species lists are therefore not anomalies but predictable outcomes of different measurement systems. Whereas traditional surveys reflect direct encounters with organisms, eDNA detections represent ecological inferences reconstructed from transformed material. Recognizing eDNA as an inferential tool provides a clearer foundation for biodiversity surveys, method comparison and communication with other stakeholders. Explicitly acknowledging the inference chain will enhance interpretation and support the continued maturation of eDNA within systematics and biodiversity science. We emphasize that eDNA and traditional surveys provide complementary perspectives on biodiversity but require distinct interpretive frameworks.
Deep-sea visual environments show extreme gradients in light intensity, driving divergence in eye morphology. In the order Amphipoda, such specializations are documented in pelagic hyperiideans, whereas deep-sea Eusiridae remain poorly known. During a bathypelagic survey in Japan, we collected a eusirid amphipod with conspicuously enlarged eyes. Integrative taxonomy, using morphology and four DNA barcoding regions, shows that it represents a new species of the monotypic genus Harcledo Barnard, 1964, described here as Harcledo toyoshioae sp. nov. It is characterized by markedly enlarged eyes that cover most of the lateral head and meet across the dorsal midline, and by a distinctive maxilla 1 armature. Phylogenetic analyses place H. toyoshioae sp. nov. within Eusiridae but leave its relationships to H. curvidactyla unresolved, owing to the lack of sequence data. Comparisons with historical records suggest rapid diversification of eye size within this clade and indicate that it is unlikely to be governed by depth or pelagic-benthic mode alone. We propose that the enlarged eyes are plausibly associated with a pelagic lifestyle in dim mid-water habitats, while noting that this interpretation remains tentative. Our findings highlight visual specializations in deep-sea eusirids and the value of combining new collections, historical literature, and molecular data when reassessing deep-sea taxa.
The aim of this study is to describe Rhaphidostyla fistuloxifera sp. nov., a new cryptogenic species of Halichondriidae with disjunct distribution from Brazil to Hawaii, using morphological and molecular data. Molecular phylogeny analysis showed that the new species belonged to the same clade as H. kitchingi (from the Celtic Sea), the type of Rhaphidostyla, which is currently regarded as a junior synonym of Hymeniacidon. Accordingly, we propose to resurrect the genus Rhaphidostyla, based on morphological and molecular evidence, to accommodate the new species and other closely related mismatched Hymeniacidon species which belong to the same distantly related clade. Rhaphidostyla is redefined by the presence of profusely bifurcated fistules as a key diagnostic feature, shared by R. kitchingi, R. pierrei (California) and the new species (Brazil and Hawaii), in combination with typical (subtylo-)styles, with an acerate point, and sometimes oxeas. Rhaphidostyla fistuloxifera sp. nov. in turn differs from the type species and all other known Halichondriidae by possessing stout acerate choanosomal oxeas in combination with relatively longer and thinner (subtylo-)styles. Morphological and genetic analyses, including ITS2 and large ribosomal subunit sequences, confirmed the conspecificity of Brazilian and Hawaiian populations of the new species previously assigned to Hymeniacidon gracilis (Hentschel, 1912). New genetic sequences of Rhaphidostyla and other Halichondriidae species from Brazil, Hawaii and the Celtic Sea are also provided. Our work contributes to the understanding of global marine sponge diversity, by correcting past identifications and reviving a genus described nearly 100 years ago. https://zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:AF58EF26-90B2-44DA-8331-D412E49D3760
Species with broad geographical distributions may exhibit phenotypic variation across their range. Starred rock agamas of the genus Laudakia are highly polymorphic and wide-ranging, with 21 currently recognized species. We investigated the intraspecific diversity within L. vulgaris and its presently recognized subspecies in Jordan (Laudakia vulgaris picea, L. v. brachydactyla, and L. vulgaris ssp.) and their correspondence to distinct evolutionary lineages using morphological and genetic variation. The morphological patterns of the three traditionally known subspecies showed character polymorphism and broad morphological overlap across their regions; these patterns were inconsistent with the phylogenetic analyses, which supported the presence of only two subspecies in Jordan (Laudakia vulgaris picea and L. v. ssp., but not L. v. brachydactyla). The results undermine the coherence between phenotypic and genotypic methods and highlight the shortcomings of morphologically defining subspecies.
The gastropod family Solariellidae is an emerging model for studies on snail vision, but these studies are hampered by poorly resolved relationships among genera. Here we present a new phylogeny with increased taxon-sampling and complete representation of all accepted genera, resulting in a more stable topology, and relationships that are consistent with morphology and biogeography. The systematics of three taxa, previously with uncertain generic assignment, are resolved: Zetela alphonsi Vilvens, 2002, and Solariella carvalhoi Lopes & Cardoso, 1958 are both assigned to Minolia, and 'Bathymophila' sp. 18 is named as Pseudobathymophila perlimata Herbert & Williams gen. et sp. nov. Two additional genera are described with six new species: Fuscomaculina Herbert, Vilvens & Williams gen. nov. (Fuscomaculina undata Herbert, Vilvens & Williams sp. nov., Fuscomaculina margaritacea Herbert, Vilvens & Williams sp. nov., Fuscomaculina pictilis Herbert, Vilvens & Williams sp. nov., Fuscomaculina salvinotata Herbert, Vilvens & Williams sp. nov., Fuscomaculina aphthonos Herbert, Vilvens & Williams sp. nov.) and Galenesia gradata Herbert & Williams gen. et sp. nov. We also reassign three South African species from Spectamen to Solariella, and Solariella tubula and Solariella lacunella to Lamellitrochus. Although most genera can now be recognized using a combination of shell and anatomical characters, separating Solariella and Spectamen remains difficult without genetic data. All genera can be clearly distinguished using molecular data, however, the generic assignment of 'Lamellitrochus' carinatus remains uncertain. Excluding 'L.' carinatus, which is sister to all other solariellids in our tree, but lacking support, our analyses suggest that solariellids originated in the central Indo-Pacific. Three genera occur in both the Indo-Pacific and Atlantic Oceans: Minolia likely originated in the Atlantic whereas Solariella and Bathymophila have Indo-Pacific origins. Based on our data and the literature, we suggest that the trochid subfamily Umboniinae competitively excludes solariellids from shallow water in the tropical and subtropical Indo-West Pacific. https://zoobank.org.urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:0747194D-CFA2-459C-93C5-9C8DDC4AD749
Eechathalakenda is a poorly-known, monotypic, cyprinid genus endemic to the Western Ghats of India, whose phylogenetic position has been debated - either considered 'incertae sedis' at the level of Cyprinidae, or sometimes placed in the subfamily Smiliogastrinae. For the first time, we include Eechathalakenda in a multigene (13 protein-coding mitochondrial genes) phylogenetic analysis and recover the genus within the cyprinid subfamily Torinae. While studying samples of Eechathalakenda from its distribution range, we encountered a new species that differs from its only known congener, E. ophicephala by several morphological characters including the pigmentation pattern, number of pectoral-fin rays, shape of supraneurals 3 and 5-10, shape and number of lateral-line scales, number of scale rows between the dorsal fin and lateral line, and by a raw genetic distance of 4.9-5.3% in the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (COX1) gene sequences. We described this new species, Eechathalakenda incognita, and generated its complete mitogenome using Illumina sequencing chemistry. Both, E. ophicephala and E. incognita have a narrow distribution range, the former to the headwaters of the Pamba River (>1000 m above sea level) and the latter restricted to the headwaters of the Periyar River (>900 m above sea level). The restricted distribution and habitat threats suggest that both species have a high risk of extinction, making them urgent priorities for conservation.
Homalometron parentum sp. nov. and Homalometron dominguezi sp. nov. are described from the striped mojarra Eugerres plumieri (Cuvier, 1830), collected from Sontecomapan Lagoon, Veracruz, Mexico. Homalometron parentum sp. nov. differs from all congeners by having vitelline follicles that extend to the forebody and are present in the testicular region, and by possessing a smooth and spineless tegument. Homalometron dominguezi sp. nov. may be distinguished by having vitelline follicles that extend to the anterior part of the body, but are not present in the testicular region, and by having a rough, spineless tegument. Our phylogenetic analyses, based on 28S sequences, revealed that Crassicutis archosargi Sparks & Thatcher, 1960 was nested in the Homalometron clade, being the sister species of H. dominguezi sp. nov., H. parentum sp. nov., and H. avis Hern & aacute;ndez-Mena et al., 2022. This result suggests that C. archosargi should be transferred to Homalometron Stafford, 1904 as H. archosargi comb. nov. Additionally, metacercariae of H. parentum sp. nov. were found in shrimp of the family Atyidae, expanding our knowledge of the intermediate hosts involved in the life cycle of Homalometron. In this study, we found that our new species coexists sympatrically with H. avis as parasites of E. plumieri in the Sontecomapan Lagoon.
We studied the taxonomy of the Pluteus ephebeus complex using morphological and molecular (nrITS, TEF1-alpha) data and designate a lectotype and an epitype for P. ephebeus and a lectotype for P. murinus. Based on our type studies, P. murinus and P. lepiotoides were recognized as distinct species; while P. pearsonii was found to be a later synonym of P. murinus. Four new species are described: Pluteus dyscritus, P. hortensis, P. phaeodyscritus and P. ratticolor. Within the P. ephebeus complex, four species are currently recognized in Europe, at least eight species in the Palearctic region of Asia, and at least five species in the Nearctic region of North America.
Progress in biodiversity sciences is hampered by asymmetries that affect the growth and management of taxonomic and phylogenetic information, particularly with respect to the distinctive role of Natural History Museums (NHMs) and related institutions that house scientific collections. Here, we address the prevailing global geopolitical dichotomy between the Global North and Global South and the role it plays in biodiversity research in NHMs. We conclude that this geopolitical dichotomy is deeply embedded in Western imperialist worldviews and, when such terminology is adopted uncritically by biodiversity scientists, they inadvertently reinforce a prejudicial and divisive global narrative. With respect to biodiversity research, the rapid development of genomic tools has profoundly expanded its scope, providing unprecedented access to heritable characters and transforming our understanding of evolutionary relationships. This expansion has coincided with a marked reorientation of funding priorities and editorial standards within biodiversity research, increasingly favouring studies that incorporate molecular data over morphology-only or primarily descriptive approaches. While genomics is neither a panacea nor a replacement for other sources of evidence, its prominence has contributed to structural imbalances in how biodiversity research efforts, including those based at NHMs, are supported and evaluated. Within this context, NHMs find themselves at a critical juncture: to be seen as mere repositories of specimens and relics, or to recognize their responsibility to assume a far more transformative role addressing urgent global challenges such as climate change, biodiversity loss, and social inequality. We propose ways-beyond general biodiversity data-in which NHMs can adapt to these demands to realize their full potential in the modern age regardless of their geopolitical context, and, whenever possible, function together as an integrated whole, a collaborative synergistic network. While reaffirming their core functions as centres of scientific discovery, cultural reflection, and social integration, we emphasize the pressing need for NHMs to redress key challenges, as active participants in global problem-solving.
Changes in the taxonomic status of the phenotypically distinct North American butterflies known as "white admirals" and "red-spotted purples" are proposed. Originally described as separate species, L. arthemis (Drury, 1773) and L. astyanax (Fabricius, 1775), respectively, most workers now accept - sometimes with reservation - that they should be grouped into a single species, L. arthemis. Herein, the taxonomic history and geographic distribution of subspecies of the L. arthemis complex, and the controversy that occurred mainly during the 20th century, are briefly reviewed. Previously published molecular data employing both mitochondrial and nuclear markers - not available during the height of the controversy - together with new phylogenetic analysis of available mitochondrial DNA barcodes suggest allopatric speciation occurred in this complex and that the current taxonomy is in need of revision. It is proposed here to elevate L. arthemis astyanax to a full species, L. astyanax reinst. stat., and to revise the name of the Arizona red-spotted purple from L. arthemis arizonensis W.H. Edwards to L. astyanax arizonensis reinst. stat.
Spatial phylogenetics has emerged as an innovative approach in biodiversity studies, offering insights into evolutionary processes and informing conservation efforts. Unfortunately, most available phylogenetic trees do not contain all described taxa. Currently, 40% of vascular plants have molecular data available. To address this gap, we explore the use of alternative phylogenetic information derived from taxonomic data and available phylogenetic hypotheses to improve biogeographic understanding and conservation planning. We tested this approach using a dataset of 54 species of the genus Roldana (Asteraceae) distributed across Mexico, dividing the territory into 89 1 degrees & times; 1 degrees grid cells. We obtained molecular phylogenies of varying degrees of completeness for 31 species. Phylogenies were constructed to include all described taxa in Mexico by adding missing species as polytomies or utilizing phylogenetic hypotheses proposed by taxonomists. We assessed differences between phylogenies using weighted Robinson-Foulds distance and covariation of branch lengths. We then calculated phylogenetic endemism, relative phylogenetic endemism, and categorical phylogenetic endemism indices and analysed the results using the Mann-Whitney U test, Spearman correlation, and Cohen's Kappa agreement. A total of 159 trees were obtained: 12 molecular (varying completeness) and 147 with all described Mexican taxa (146 based on taxonomy and one with polytomies). The phylogenies exhibited high covariation within individual branches, but not within their total lengths. Robinson-Foulds distance analysis revealed significant differences between the molecular phylogeny and the other phylogenies, although there were fewer discrepancies with phylogenies based on taxonomic data. The U-test showed non-significant differences, but phylogenies with polytomies, low completeness (<40%), or short branches showed poorer correlations. In contrast, phylogenies with all described taxa showed good to excellent agreement. In conclusion, phylogenies based solely on molecular information are robust for spatial phylogenetic analyses and biodiversity assessment. Conversely, phylogenies with low completeness or excessive polytomies yield less reliable results.
Ciliates in the class Prostomatea play a vital role as consumers across multiple trophic levels in various aquatic environments. Among them, the Colepidae, characterized by the grenade-shaped body, are a common and abundant taxon. However, the biodiversity of this group of ciliates remains elusive, and its phylogenetic relationships need to be clarified. In this study, three marine colepids, viz., Plagiopogon paraloricatus sp. nov., Apocoleps caoi Chen et al., 2012 and Pinacocoleps similis (Kahl, 1933), discovered from intertidal zones in China, were investigated based on morphological and SSU rRNA gene sequence data. The new species is assigned to the genus Plagiopogon Stein, 1859 according to the armour plate of the newly isolated cells divided into several separate plates without forming distinct groupings, and its smooth surface lacking windows, and it differs from the only congener P. loricatus mainly in the number of longitudinal somatic kineties. We provide improved diagnoses and redescriptions of Apocoleps caoi and Pinacocoleps similis, along with the first documentation of their molecular phylogenetic placement. Molecular phylogenetic analysis of the Colepidae incorporating the three new sequences reveals that the family is monophyletic. This suggests that the presence of armour plates is likely a phylogenetically significant characteristic. Additionally, the monophyly of the genus Plagiopogon was recovered for the first time.
This study employs an integrative taxonomic approach, combining morphological examination, molecular phylogenetic analyses (based on mitochondrial COI and partial 28S rRNA sequence data), and four species delimitation methods (using COI sequences) to investigate species diversity within the genus Mongoloniscus. Our results indicate that 10 species of Mongoloniscus are currently recorded in China, including two new species described here (Mongoloniscus albomarginatus Li & Jiang, sp. nov. and M. niger Li & Jiang, sp. nov.). This study also reveals phenotypic variation within Mongoloniscus orientalis populations. It further highlights the utility of integrative taxonomy in assessing phenotypic plasticity in terrestrial isopods, thereby preventing overestimation of species diversity. https://zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:4B250DF1-B26C-4D62-A0AB-3538AF06AE23
The tribe Aradellini Wygodzinsky & Usinger, 1963 (Hemiptera: Reduviidae: Holoptilinae) has been traditionally considered as the earliest diverging tribe of the feather-legged assassin bugs, lacking many of the diagnostic characters of the rest of the subfamily. These include the lack of the long antennal and hind-tibial setae, as well as the absence of the abdominal trichome - a glandular structure fundamental to prey interactions in the more derived Holoptilini Lepeletier & Serville, 1825. Here, we describe a new monotypic genus, Aratrichous anacomosus gen. et sp. nov., which shares synapomorphies with members of Aradellini, yet starkly contrasts the tribe's diagnosis by having a distinct abdominal trichome. This trichome occurs in all instars and in both sexes; although incomplete in the first instar, it is fully developed in later stages. Phylogenomic analysis confirms this new species as sister taxon to the remaining Aradellini and places the tribe as a derived lineage within Holoptilini and as sister group to other endemic Australian genera, thereby refuting the long-held assumption that Aradellini represent the earliest diverging lineage of the entire subfamily. Consequently, we here synonymize Aradellini with Holoptilini sensu nov. and present a revised diagnosis for the tribe that includes characters pertaining to forewing venation, vestiture and trichome presence. Furthermore, within the Australian Holoptilinae, our findings suggest: a secondary loss of the trichome; a replacement of elongate setae with short teardrop-shaped setae; and a pronounced broadening of the antennae. We hypothesize that these morphological shifts reflect an adaptive transition toward a more myrmecophilous lifestyle, in contrast to the interceptive predatory strategies typical of other Holoptilinae. https://zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:0FFCE963-EEA5-48A9-BFAE-1E86189FC4CC
Luciola Laporte, 1833 is a taxonomically challenging firefly taxon. Five species occur in Europe: L. italica, L. lusitanica, L. pedemontana, L. mingrelica and L. novaki. Their taxonomic history has been obscured by synonymies, insufficient diagnoses and a lack of integrative studies. This species assembly is particularly important because it includes the type species of Luciola, L. lusitanica. Legacy diagnostic traits have proven ineffective in distinguishing Luciola species across Europe, and accurate species identification is challenging, which hinders further studies and conservation efforts. Three species - L. lusitanica, L. pedemontana and L. mingrelica - share similar external morphology (e.g. pale thorax, femora darkened apically, no pronotal black spot) and have often been treated collectively as L. lusitanica sensu lato, underscoring the need for revised species boundaries. We analyzed COI sequences from 86 L. lusitanica s.l. and six L. italica specimens. We found L. lusitanica s.l. to be paraphyletic (excluding L. italica). Using integrative species delimitation (combining morphological, molecular and behavioural evidence), we found support for the distinctiveness of L. lusitanica, L. pedemontana, L. mingrelica and L. italica, proposing updated diagnoses and distributions for each species. Our richly illustrated and updated diagnoses are intended to significantly facilitate species identification and help stabilize Luciola taxonomy.
