Genetic components explain a moderate, yet statistically significant proportion of the phenotypic variation in tree architecture and hydraulic traits of beech trees growing in naturally regenerated monospecific stands. Drought tolerance of European beech has been increasingly questioned in recent years. However, the influence of genetic factors and forest management on growth performance and key hydraulic traits in naturally regenerated beech populations remains insufficiently understood. This study aims to quantify the relative contributions of endogenous and exogenous factors to tree architectural and hydraulic traits of 100-year-old beech trees in monospecific stands growing on a cool-moist northeast (NE) and a warm-dry southwest (SW) aspect in the Swabian Alb, Southwest Germany. In 1999, three treatments (control, strong thinning, and very strong thinning) were applied to both aspects. Kinship analyses based on microsatellite markers assigned 722 trees to 126 half‑sibling families. Terrestrial laser scanning in spring 2023 enabled detailed phenotyping of tree architecture and the calculation of competition indices. Quantitative wood anatomy was used to characterize water conducting cells. Family effects on tree architecture were less pronounced compared to competition and aspect, yet remained the sole significant predictor for secondary branching and crown ratio. Wood anatomical traits were highly plastic and responded strongly to changes in environmental conditions. Contrary to previous assumptions, reduced competition did not decrease vessel size or increase hydraulic safety. Furthermore, vessel diameters were larger on the warm‑dry SW aspect when comparing trees of similar height and competition, challenging the assumption of a safety‑oriented hydraulic strategy under arid conditions. Families significantly influenced hydraulic traits, but most phenotypic variation occurred among individual trees nested within families, providing a potential mechanistic explanation for genotype‑related mortality patterns reported in earlier studies.
The low efficiency of natural pollination in the macauba palm limits the productive potential of the species. To address this constraint, we evaluated the effectiveness of artificial interventions applied to the inflorescence and pollination process as strategies to increase fruit set following characterization of inflorescence developmental stages. Inflorescences were monitored from their emergence until natural opening. Before natural opening, physical interventions were performed to promote floral exposure, and subsequent effects on fruit set were assessed. Artificial pollination was carried out on spathes subjected to forced opening (stage IV) and on naturally opened spathes, with fruit set and fruit biometric traits quantified thereafter. Following analysis of pollen viability at stages III, IV, and V, artificial pollination was performed using pollen from both immature (stage IV) and mature (stage V) inflorescences to assess their relative fertilization efficiency. Inflorescences displayed asynchronous phenological development, with variation detected among genotypes. The physical interventions did not influence fruit set. In contrast, artificial pollination markedly enhanced fruit set without altering fruit biometric parameters, with greater gains observed in forced-opening spathes (4.6-fold increase) compared with naturally opened spathes (3.2-fold increase). Pollen collected from inflorescences at stages IV (immature) and V (mature) exhibited high viability (> 90
Range expansion and assisted establishment of tropical hardwoods under a changing climate require an understanding of early-stage mortality mechanisms. Evaluation of replicated half-sib families (HSFs) of Dalbergia latifolia across three climatically distinct locations in northern India revealed that biotic factors were the dominant mortality driver. Climatic variables did not exhibit significant independent effects after accounting for biotic stressors, suggesting that environmental conditions may influence mortality indirectly through their effects on disease and insect-pest pressure. Mortality responses varied markedly among HSFs, populations (provenances), years and locations, revealing pronounced genotype-by-environment (G×E) interactions. Notably, the Eastern India population was found to be most susceptible to disease and insect-pests severity, although populations Pop02, Pop03 (Central India), and Pop05, Pop07 (South India) exhibited higher mortality risk under biotic stress. However, populations such as Pop01 (Central India), and Pop04 and Pop06 (South India) consistently exhibited lower susceptibility and mortality across locations, suggesting underlying differences in tolerance, plasticity, and local adaptation due to their geographical proximity to the field gene banks. The locations Central University of Punjab (CUP), Bathinda (L2), and Indian Council of Forestry Research Education-Forest Research Institute (ICFRE-FRI), Dehradun (L3) amplified stress via. location-specific pressures. Collectively, these findings suggest that early establishment success in D. latifolia is shaped largely by interactions between genetic background, biotic stressors, and spatially heterogeneous environments, highlighting the importance of selecting resilient genetic material for future plantation and restoration programmes.
Cyclocarya paliurus, a multifunctional economic tree species, is sensitive to the cold stress. However, limited information is available regarding the relationship between structural carbohydrate and cold tolerance as well as the expression patterns of their biosynthetic genes under cold stress. In this study, we investigated the responses of cellulose and hemicellulose contents to cold stress in diploid and tetraploid C. paliurus seedlings, and generated a gene co-expression network to explore genes potentially linked to hemicellulose biosynthesis under simulated cold conditions. A superior cold tolerance in the diploids to the tetraploids was attributed to a higher content of cellulose and hemicellulose and less degradation under the cold stress, while the hemicellulose may play a more important role than cellulose in improving cold tolerance. Based on transcriptome analysis and sequence alignment, a total of 45 genes involved in hemicellulose biosynthesis were identified in C. paliurus, and the predominant hemicellulose compositions were glucomannan, xyloglucan and glucuronoxylan. Furthermore, 12 transcription factors potentially involved in the regulation of hemicellulose synthesis were identified through weighted gene co-expression network analysis. Three transcription factors (CpaM1st04929, CpaM1st40702 and CpaM1st20568) from diploids, and one transcription factor (CpaM1st40508) from tetraploids, exhibited significant correlations with freezing injury index. These genes serve as candidate transcription factors potentially linked to the regulation of cold tolerance. Our results not only provide the molecular basis for hemicellulose biosynthesis in C. paliurus under the cold stress but also a reference for selecting and improving the cold-resistant genotypes in other woody plant species.
In recent decades, forest natural disturbances, such as windfall, pest outbreaks, and windthrows, became more frequent, directly or indirectly linked to climate change. These disturbances had a significant impact on the biodiversity of old-growth spruce forests in the central part of the Russian Plain, as quantitative indicators of vegetation response to environmental changes and endogenous dynamics within natural systems demonstrate. We conducted a comprehensive study at 71 permanent sample plots, which revealed that natural disturbance processes consistently and significantly altered the composition and structure of forest communities over the past 40 years. The decline of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) in the main canopy layer appears to be driven by increasing winter and summer temperatures, together with a rising frequency of extreme events and biotic stresses. The primary trend we observed during this period was the growing complexity of spatial structure and the heightened heterogeneity of plant communities. While modern communities became more diverse in terms of species composition their structure became less uniform, with increased differences between dominant and rare species, heightened competition, and more pronounced dominance of individual species. These changes also affected the ecological characteristics of the communities, leading to an increase in thermal regime and a decrease in soil acidity, consistent with the overall nemoralization of the flora. Furthermore, the study established a close relationship between the morphological features of the terrain and the type of regeneration succession in structurally disturbed spruce forests.
Tachigali vulgaris has potential for energy purposes in the Amazon, but the relationship between several silvicultural factors and wood quality requires further investigation. This study evaluated the variation in the apparent density of T. vulgaris wood in two pure plantations in the Amazon. The tested factors were diameter, height, stem forking, fertilization, and soil texture. Two 11-year-old trial plantations located on yellow oxisols with sandy loam and very clayey textures were evaluated, both with and without phosphorus and potassium fertilization. Discs were sampled along the stem heights, and apparent wood density was determined by X-ray densitometry. The Linear mixed-effects model showed that wood density was significantly associated with quadratic mean diameter and commercial height, unlike stem forking, soil texture, or fertilization. A marginal interaction between fertilization and soil textural class occurred. Despite no significant effect of stem forking on wood density, forked trees were more heterogeneous longitudinally. Multivariate analysis of variance indicated that the longitudinal variation within trees accounted for 69
Enhanced seed production in a mast year suppressed nitrogen allocation to fine roots and leaves of beech trees by decreasing dry matter production and nitrogen concentration, respectively. It is well known that masting influences the productivity of aboveground vegetative organs, potentially altering carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) dynamics in forests. To examine whether masting affects C and N allocation to belowground organs, we investigated the production and concentrations of C and N of fine roots, along with those of leaves and seeds, in a Japanese beech stand during the period 2015–2017, with 2015 being a masting year. The results showed that C and N allocations to fine roots were comparable to or greater than those to leaves, reflecting the productivity of fine roots and leaves (ca. 260–490 vs. 310–340 g m− 2 year− 1), while C and N allocations to reproductive organs were about 40–50
Urban institutional campuses may offer strong OECM potential by supporting tree diversity, tree-related microhabitats, and urban biodiversity conservation, while also contributing to India’s broader 30 × 30 and SDG-aligned goals. Urbanisation plays a major role in the global decline of biodiversity, leading to habitat fragmentation, ecosystem disturbances, and the proliferation of invasive species. While protected areas (PAs) are crucial for conservation, they alone cannot counter biodiversity loss amid rapid urban expansion. Complimenting PAs, Other Effective Area-Based Conservation Measures (OECMs) offer alternative strategies, encompassing conserved landscapes such as indigenous territories, sacred groves, community forests, and, notably, urban institutional campuses. This research identifies and evaluates the large and historically protected urban campuses in India as a potential OECM within local, national, and global biodiversity frameworks. The present study highlights the case of the large CSIR-NEERI (National Environmental Engineering Research Institute), Nagpur campus covering 46 hectares, having 83 tree species supporting diverse tree-related microhabitats (TreMs) and other ecosystem services. The systematic sampling of tree species and microhabitats has been shown to provide significant ecological value, structural complexity, and resilience, thus making the campus a real biodiversity reservoir and an ecological link in the face of an urban environment. The study highlights how institutional campuses can meet key OECM criteria, supporting secure tenure, low disturbance, governance capacity, long-term monitoring, and the fusion of conservation with the educational and research missions. Identifying such urban green spaces as OECMs provides cost-effective measures to extend conservation endeavours, meet the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework’s 30 × 30 target, and advance Sustainable Development Goals (11,13,14 15). Our findings advocate for the strategic inclusion of institutional campuses in Indian conservation policies to foster resilient, biodiverse, and sustainable urban environments.
To compare the measurement accuracy of Structure from Motion (SfM) photogrammetry and the pixel equivalent method in acquiring urban street tree parameters, the diameter at breast height (DBH), tree height, and volume of 56 trees from three species (Taxodium distichum, Ginkgo biloba, and Quercus rubra) were estimated using smartphone image data. The results showed that both methods performed well for DBH estimation, with the pixel equivalent method showing slightly higher goodness of fit (Bias = 0.1241 cm, RMSE = 0.6511 cm, R2 = 0.984), whereas smartphone-based SfM showed slightly lower overall error(Bias = -0.6664 cm, RMSE = 1.3543 cm, R2 = 0.938). However, smartphone-based SfM exhibited substantially lower accuracy for tree height (Bias = 0.6973 m, RMSE = 2.5124 m, R2 = 0.017) and volume estimation (Bias = 0.0384 m3, RMSE = 0.0582 m3, R2 = 0.896). In contrast, the pixel equivalent method demonstrated superior performance for tree height (Bias = 0.2935 m, RMSE = 0.6653 m, R2 = 0.713) and volume (Bias = 0.0168 m3, RMSE = 0.0423 m3, R2 = 0.931). Overall, the pixel equivalent method produced smaller systematic bias, lower RMSE, and higher model fit, outperforming smartphone-based SfM under the present conditions, suggesting that it is more suitable for estimating urban street tree parameters in this study.
This research is the first comprehensive, genome-wide study of the calcium-dependent protein kinase (CDPK) gene family in the Aquilaria agallocha tree. A total of 24 CDPK genes were identified in the study. Protein–protein interaction, gene ontology, promoter composition, RNA sequencing, and RT-qPCR are studied in detail. The results suggest that AaCDPK proteins act as signaling molecules that are involved in defense responses of A. agallocha. Calcium (Ca2+) ions function as a ubiquitous secondary messenger in plant signal transduction. Calcium-Dependent Protein Kinases (CDPKs) are key sensors that translate fluctuations of calcium ion concentration into biochemical responses by phosphorylating downstream proteins. These phosphorylating events influence physiological processes, including phytohormone signaling and secondary metabolite biosynthesis. Aquilaria agallocha is the tree known for its commercially valuable agarwood in Northeast India. The tree produces this valuable resin as a defense response to abiotic and biotic stresses, particularly those caused by fungal infections. However, molecular pathways underlying the biosynthesis of agarwood resin, particularly the role of CDPK genes, remain unexplored. In this study, 24 AaCDPK genes were identified through a genome-wide analysis, and they were classified into four distinct phylogenetic groups. Promoter analysis revealed the presence of stress and hormone-responsive cis-regulatory elements. Evolutionary analysis revealed that dispersed duplication—rather than whole-genome or segmental events drove the expansion of the AaCDPK family, highlighting a unique evolutionary pattern in this resin-producing tree species. RT-qPCR analysis confirmed their upregulation of key candidates’ genes such as AaCDPK10, 32, 1.1,17.2, 21 and 20 in response to MeJA, H2O2, and CaCl2 treatments. Integration of PPI, GO, RNA-seq, and qRT-PCR analyses links AaCDPKs to ROS-mediated resin initiation, providing new insight into agarwood formation biology. These findings highlight the association of AaCDPK in calcium-mediated signal-transduction mechanisms associated with A. agallocha defense responses and secondary metabolism. This study offers foundational insights into the regulatory landscape of AaCDPKs, opening avenues for future research as candidate regulators in the initiation of agarwood formation.
Urban street trees are susceptible to windthrow and branch failure during storms, yet existing risk frameworks focus on static ultimate-load criteria and neglect cumulative fatigue damage under repeated wind loading. This study presents an integrated, screening-level engineering–biology framework — explicitly adapted from structural-fatigue methodology to the biological realities of living trees — coupling ABAQUS finite element dynamic analysis (with documented mesh convergence), Kaimal-spectrum biaxial wind time series, rainflow cycle counting, Miner’s damage rule, a concentric-hollow decay stress amplification model, and regional Weibull wind-speed distributions. Six tree geometries (H = 6 and 8 m; DBH = 15, 20, and 25 cm) were modelled as tapered B31 beams with biaxial wind loading (longitudinal mean-plus-turbulence and lateral turbulence at σ_v = 0.75σ_u) and Rayleigh damping (ζ = 2 R=0 -derived S-N coefficients is recognised as a non-conservative simplification and is partially compensated by lower-bound S-N parameters. The maximum dynamic amplification factor (DAF) was 7.71 for H = 8 m, DBH = 15 cm, with a peak stress of 138.7 MPa exceeding the ginkgo modulus of rupture (MOR), indicating that static failure precedes fatigue in slender trees. For a decayed reference tree (r_d/R = 0.8) under Jeju typhoon-regime winds (Weibull scale parameter c = 9.0 m/s), lower-bound S-N fatigue life was approximately 1.4 years. Sound-tree fatigue life differed by up to several hundred thousand times across five Korean street tree species due to MOR differences alone, with species-specific elastic-modulus variation contributing only ± 6
Eugenia (Myrtaceae) is a Neotropical genus that produces desiccation-sensitive (DS) seeds, for which the metabolism of desiccation damage remains unclear. We analyzed polyamines (PAs), antioxidant enzymes, and malondialdehyde (MDA) in seeds of E. pyriformis, E. involucrata, E. brasiliensis, and E. astringens at four water contents (WC) to investigate their relationship with DS. Species differed in their WC thresholds for viability loss, with E. pyriformis and E. involucrata reaching 50
High-altitude treelines in western Himalaya are highly sensitive to climate variability and atmospheric circulations, which influences regional temperature and moisture. We measured leaf-level ecophysiological responses-gas exchange, photosynthetic pigments (chla, chlb), chlorophyll fluorescence, photosynthetic rate (Pn), water use efficiency (WUE), vapor pressure deficit (VPD) between the co-occurring seedlings and trees in Rhododendron campanulatum D. Don and Quercus semecarpifolia Sm. growing at 3200–3450 m a.s.l. (treeline). Also, ERA5 climate datasets were analysed to understand how these tree species adjust to physiological stresses at treeline. Quercus semecarpifolia showed higher chla, chlb and chla+b content, specific leaf area (SLA), WUEi, Amass and Fv/Fm. Also, Fv/Fm values remained close to optimal threshold ( 0.80), indicating stable photosystem-II functioning, whereas lower values in R. campanulatum indicate greater susceptibility to photo-inhibition at treeline. Rhododendron campanulatum showed significantly higher VPD than Q. semecarpifolia, reflecting greater atmospheric dryness and evaporative demands. Principal component analysis (PCA) explained 37.2
Salt stress critically impairs plant growth and development; therefore, elucidating salt-tolerance genes and their regulatory mechanisms is essential for advancing molecular breeding. In our previous study, a GRAS transcription factor, BpGRAS19, was identified within the salt-responsive gene regulatory network of birch (Betula platyphylla). Phylogenetic analysis and conserved domain prediction validated BpGRAS19 as a member of the GRAS family, which contains a highly conserved GRAS domain. Subcellular localization experiments and quantitative real-time PCR (RT-qPCR) analyses further showed that BpGRAS19 is a nuclear-localized protein with tissue-specific expression patterns, and its expression is significantly induced by salt stress in birch. Transient transformation assays confirmed that BpGRAS19 functions as a positive regulator of salt tolerance in birch. In contrast, CRISPR/Cas9-mediated knockout of BpGRAS19 remarkably reduced salt tolerance, which was associated with impaired reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging capacity. Yeast one-hybrid (Y1H) assays indicated that BpGRAS19 specifically binds to characterized (MBS, W-box) and novel cis-acting elements (UN1: ACCGAGC; UN2: CGACATC), thereby expanding the DNA-binding motif of GRAS transcription factors. Taken together, these results demonstrate that BpGRAS19 improves salt tolerance in birch by mitigating cell membrane damage and enhancing ROS scavenging efficiency. This study lays a foundation for understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying salt tolerance in woody plants and provides theoretical support for salt-resistant breeding of birch.
A first measurement of the tissue stress applied by bark and turgor pressure in the cambial region indicates that cambial growth is severely mechanically constrained by bark. The vascular cambium and expanding tissues are confined between the secondary xylem and the secondary phloem. Plant cell expansion is driven by turgor pressure, which generates tension in the cell wall and leads to its irreversible deformation, resulting in an increase in cell volume. When a cell is confined within surrounding tissues, these tissues exert a mechanical stress on the growing cells, referred to as tissue stress. In this context, cell expansion depends on the balance between the internal turgor pressure of the cell and the external stress applied by the surrounding tissues. Here, we present a first attempt to quantify this mechanical balance in the vascular cambium of young lime trees. The tissue stress exerted by the bark on cambial tissues was estimated from released strains and the mechanical properties of the bark measured in this study. The turgor pressure of cambial cells was directly measured using a cell pressure probe. Our analyses show that the bark applies a radial compressive stress to the vascular cambium, with a mean magnitude of − 0.17 MPa. The turgor pressure measured in actively growing cambial cells averaged 0.23 MPa. The proximity of these values suggests that cambial growth is strongly limited by the confining stress exerted by the bark. We then discuss the consequences of changes in water status (such as diurnal variations or seasonal fluctuations) on this mechanical balance and on the regulation of cambial growth.
Drought resistance and resilience in Mediterranean oaks appear to be structured along axes of variation linked to leaf habit and wood anatomy. Recurrent and intensifying droughts have emerged as a principal driver of decline in Mediterranean oak forests over the past three decades. This review synthesizes current understanding of the functional mechanisms shaping drought impacts in these ecosystems and complements existing work by combining a structured categorical overview with a multivariate functional ordination of oak responses. We assembled a dataset of 240 records derived from 212 studies published between 1994 and 2024, spanning species with contrasting leaf habits (evergreen, deciduous, semi-persistent), diverse wood anatomies (diffuse-, ring-, and semi-ring-porous), and developmental stages ranging from seedlings to mature stands. The studies encompass a broad gradient of drought durations and intensities, enabling comparison of drought resistance and resilience across plant systems. Across the reviewed literature, key ecophysiological mechanisms include stomatal regulation, hydraulic and osmotic adjustment, morpho-anatomical plasticity, and phenological shifts. However, most studies investigate these mechanisms in isolation, and integrative, multi-trait analyses remain rare. Using coarse categorical metrics, we found no clear geographic structuring of resistance, resilience, or response mechanisms, likely reflecting uneven species representation and heterogeneous experimental designs. Nonetheless, the dataset reveals functional patterns linked to plant diversity: deciduous, ring-porous species exhibit higher frequencies of low-resistance and low-resilience states, whereas evergreen, diffuse-porous species tend to display greater hydraulic safety and recovery capacity. Correspondence analysis further highlights major axes of variation associated with leaf habit and wood anatomy, confirming divergent adaptive strategies among Mediterranean oak functional types. Collectively, these findings underscore the importance of functional diversity in shaping drought responses and provide a framework for future mechanistic research and climate-adapted forest management.
Increased crown transparency delays the onset and shortens the duration of xylogenesis, resulting in reduced tracheid production in Pinus sylvestris and Juniperus communis. In understory J. communis, peak tracheid production occurred significantly later than in dominant P. sylvestris. Ongoing climate warming threatens the integrity of mountain forests by diminishing tree vitality, increasing susceptibility to pathogens, and accelerating mortality. A loss of tree vitality is reflected in increased crown transparency (CT), which is particularly evident in forests experiencing drought conditions. In this study, we examined the timing and dynamics of xylogenesis in Pinus sylvestris L. and co-occurring Juniperus communis L. across three CT classes at a drought-prone site (959 m a.s.l., Tyrol, Austria). Throughout the 2024 growing season, xylogenesis in both species (n=20 each) was monitored using microcore sampling at weekly (P. sylvestris) and three-week (J. communis) intervals. We tested whether increasing CT affects radial growth and xylem phenology. Specifically, we assessed whether increased CT delays the onset and shortens the duration of xylogenesis. Our results show that xylogenesis in P. sylvestris started 9–13 days earlier than in J. communis, and the inflection point in J. communis occurred 10–20 days later than in P. sylvestris. Increasing CT was associated with reduced tracheid production and basal area increment, and consistently delayed the onset and shortened the duration of xylogenesis. These findings demonstrate a tight coupling between CT and stem growth, highlighting that CT constrains wood formation.
Foliar calcium applied to sweet cherry spur leaves remains mobile to fruit until late season, partially compensating the reduction in xylem functionality and supporting calcium nutrition during rapid fruit growth. Calcium (Ca) is essential for cell wall and membrane integrity, affecting fruit firmness and postharvest quality in sweet cherry (Prunus avium L.). It is generally accepted that Ca accumulation in fruit declines during development due to reduced xylem functionality and phloem mobility. However, this study sought to assess whether Ca absorbed by fruiting spur leaves (FSL) could be translocated to fruit on the same spur until late in the season. The experiment was conducted on ‘Lapins’/‘Colt’ trees. Individual FSL were labeled with 0.05
At the northern edge of Abies alba’s range, populations differ in budburst and growth, key for conservation planning and assisted migration, while photosynthetic capacity is mainly shaped by shading. Shade tolerance and phenotypic plasticity are critical for the survival and growth of Abies alba seedlings, particularly at the northern edge of its range. Seedlings from six provenances of different origins were grown under high light and low light to assess phenological, growth, and photosynthetic responses. We show that, under low light (36
Variation in stem xylem anatomy among almond cultivars was associated with differences in hydraulic vulnerability, indicating that anatomical traits contributed more strongly than stomatal behavior to cultivar-level drought responses. Understanding the mechanisms underlying isohydric and anisohydric behavior in woody species is critical for predicting their performance under increasing drought stress. We combined hydraulic, anatomical, and gas exchange measurements during progressive soil drought and re-watering in three Prunus dulcis cultivars (Avijor, Isabelona, and Soleta) to evaluate how coordinated traits explain drought responses and recovery. Hydroscape analysis confirmed the isohydric–anisohydric ranking previously reported, with Avijor being the most isohydric and Soleta the most anisohydric. Across cultivars, a common sequence of responses was observed: early decline in leaf hydraulic conductivity (Kleaf), followed by turgor loss point (ΨTLP), stomatal closure, and onset of embolism. Despite this shared pattern, cultivars differed in key drought thresholds. The more anisohydric cultivars showed more negative ΨTLP, and Soleta exhibited greater stem embolism resistance than Avijor. Cultivar differentiation was also clearer in stem xylem anatomy than in leaf traits, with variation in vessel-related traits being consistent with differences in stem vulnerability. By contrast, leaf vulnerability thresholds showed no clear differences among cultivars. Relative Kleaf recovery differed among cultivars, with higher recovery in Soleta than in Avijor, while Isabelona was intermediate. This pattern may reflect that Soleta and Isabelona did not reach water potentials lower than their stem P50 during drought, unlike Avijor. The separation between leaf and stem vulnerability thresholds also varied between cultivars and was greatest in Soleta, suggesting possible inter-cultivar variability in hydraulic vulnerability segmentation. Overall, cultivar-level drought responses in almond were explained by differences in stem embolism resistance, ΨTLP, and stem xylem analysis than by stomatal behavior alone.
