The blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra) represents a fascinating case study in ecological adaptation and conservation. Once widespread across the open grasslands and semi-arid plains of the Indian subcontinent, its population declined sharply due to habitat fragmentation, poaching, and competition with livestock. Despite these challenges, the blackbuck has demonstrated remarkable resilience, with populations increasing in many areas, particularly within protected reserves and community-managed landscapes. This review examines habitat structure, population dynamics, foraging behaviour, human-wildlife interactions, crop damage, and the conservation of blackbucks, with a special focus on blackbucks in Odisha. Initially, abstracts of 572 pieces of literature from different sources were considered, and 123 resources relevant for this synthesis were thoroughly reviewed. Most studies focus on social structure and behaviour, foraging behaviour, population dynamics and distribution. Prey-predator dynamics, biological interactions and movement ecology of blackbucks were the least studied. Blackbucks survived medium anthropogenic pressures and sustained low daily water intake. Activity patterns, habitat structure, inter- and intraspecific interactions, and food availability influence blackbuck’s social behaviour. Habitat fragmentation and land-use changes isolate blackbucks to smaller areas, restricting their movement and ability to find mates. Checking habitat degradation, optimising human-wildlife coexistence, exploring reintroduction possibilities in former ranges, assessing the genetic health of fragmented populations, patronising community involvement in conservation, restricting land sale/purchase in blackbuck-inhabited areas, identifying core areas of distribution by tracking movement ecologyand constructing safe corridors for free passage of blackbucks could help in good management. A fundamental shift in the forest-focused conservation approach towards species-specific ecosystem restoration could help restore declining grassland specialists like blackbucks. Using advanced computing techniques and developing an automated visualisation tool could help educate stakeholders and prioritise decision-making in conservation planning. This review integrates blackbuck’s behaviour and ecology with conservation and identifies focus areas essential for long-term conservation through community engagement.
We report here the first record of a crab-eating raccoon (Procyon cancrivorus) at Las Baulas Marine National Park, Guanacaste Province, northwest Costa Rica. We obtained repeated camera-trap detections at multiple sites between 2021 and 2025, indicating that the species occurs farther north than previously documented, consistent with a potential northward range expansion. We recorded 70 independent detections of crab-eating raccoons, accounting for approximately 17.9
The primary impacts of mining on wildlife are habitat loss and fragmentation, which reduce the availability of essential resources and disrupt ecological processes necessary for species persistence. Despite the growing expansion of mining activities in tropical regions, their effects on large mammals remain poorly understood. We used an open population, spatially explicit capture–recapture model to analyze jaguar (Panthera onca) population density and dynamics in a degraded landscape surrounding a bauxite mining area in eastern Brazilian Amazonia based on seven years (2014 to 2020) of continuous camera-trap monitoring data. We predict that the population declined or, at best, remained stable throughout the study, and that the area will harbor a relatively low jaguar density compared to nearby or similar areas due to active mining operations and the degraded state of most remaining forests. We identified individual jaguars by their unique spot patterns. We captured 24 individuals at least once across 125 detection events. The best model had encounter rate as a function of trap location (on-road/off-road), shifts in activity centers between sessions, and constant survival (φ) and recruitment (f). The population dynamics in the open-population model were characterized by high apparent survival (mean φ = 0.93) and low per capita recruitment (mean f = 0.07). The finite population growth rate was near zero (𝛌 = 1.007), and the population remained essentially stable across the study (mean 2.04 individuals/100 km2). In the multisession, closed-population model, population density fluctuated from 1.24 to 3.27 (mean = 2.18) individuals/100 km2. The population density was low but stable, as predicted, but with very low recruitment. The study provides a rare and valuable long-term assessment of jaguar ecology in a mining landscape.
The reestablishment of top predator populations is a widely used conservation strategy in ecological restoration, with the recovery of Iberian lynx populations representing a notable success. However, the physiological consequences of lynx reintroduction for sympatric mesocarnivores remain poorly understood. Non-consumptive effects of lynx presence may contribute to increased allostatic demands in red foxes. We hypothesized that foxes inhabiting lynx-occupied territories would exhibit higher hair glucocorticoid (hGC) levels, potentially reflecting variation in cumulative physiological demands associated with lynx presence, and that these responses would depend on individual characteristics. Hair samples were collected from 108 red fox carcasses originating from road kills and predator control actions across six districts in Portugal with and without lynx occurrence, and hGC levels were quantified as an integrative indicator of physiological activity. Biological responsiveness of hGC measurements was assessed through an adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) challenge. Age class was the most consistently supported predictor of hGC variation (variable importance 1.00), followed by sex (importance 0.81), lynx occurrence (importance 0.49) with foxes from lynx-absent areas showing hGC levels approximately 13
The Sloth Bear (Melursus ursinus) is an elusive, charismatic mammal species that is exclusive to the Indian subcontinent. Sri Lanka hosts a distinct subspecies of the Sri Lankan Sloth Bear (Melursus ursinus inornatus), confined to northern and eastern lowland dry zone forests. Our study conducted in Kumana National Park from August 2022 to March 2024, assessed the spatiotemporal habitat use and density of Sri Lankan sloth bears. A systematic camera-trapping approach was implemented across 32 stations, capturing 55 independent sloth bear footage. Activity patterns were analyzed using kernel density estimation, while habitat preference was evaluated through occupancy modeling. Vegetation, physical attributes, and food availability at each station were recorded to determine the occupancy probability of sloth bears. Density was estimated using the random encounter model (REM), exhibiting a population density of 38 bears per 100 km² (95
The grouping behavior and dispersal patterns of wild animals provide crucial insights into individual life histories, disease transmission, and behavioral ecology. However, direct observation and documentation of these behaviors are often constrained by their occurrence in concealed locations. In this study, we investigated groups of raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides) resting at sunrise within urban parks and vacant lots, using a drone equipped with an infrared camera from February to October. Our observations revealed repeated observations of groups of three or more individuals resting or sleeping together with physical attachment between February and May. This communal resting behavior was no longer observed after June. This finding significantly diverges from the existing literature, which generally suggests that raccoon dogs commence dispersal from their natal areas between September and October, typically resting alone or in pairs during winter. These results indicate that raccoon dog resting behavior may manifest in more varied ways than previously described in the literature, underscoring the necessity for further comparative studies to determine if similar behaviors are observed in other environments.
The American mink (Neogale vison) is one of the most damaging invasive carnivores in Europe, contributing to the decline of native semi-aquatic mammals such as the critically endangered European mink (Mustela lutreola). We evaluated the long-term effectiveness of a floating raft–based monitoring and trapping programme implemented in Bizkaia (northern Spain) over a 12-year period (2014–2025). Using multi-season occupancy models, we assessed patterns of raft use while accounting for imperfect detection, and examined how environmental and management variables influenced detection dynamics. The relationship between footprint detections and capture success was further analysed using zero-inflated negative binomial mixed models. A total of 307 American mink were captured during the study period. Annual captures declined markedly over time, whereas the trapping effort required per individual increased substantially, reflecting progressive population reduction. Detection probability varied among rivers and declined seasonally, being highest in early autumn. Footprint frequency on rafts was positively associated with capture success, supporting the use of floating rafts as an effective tool for targeted removal. Colonization and extinction probabilities showed limited temporal variation, likely reflecting low-density dynamics and residual individuals rather than active population turnover. Our results indicate that sustained, long-term application of floating rafts can reduce invasive American mink populations to very low levels in continental systems. Continued surveillance focused on high-use sites appears essential to prevent reinvasion and to facilitate future recovery efforts for native species.
The hazel dormouse is currently in steep decline within the UK and other parts of northwest Europe, with one cause being the limited availability of nesting locations following historical deforestation. Nest boxes are often used as a conservation tool to mitigate the lack of natural opportunities, but until recently only one model of dormouse box was commonly used; this ‘conventional’ box is similar to a reversed bird nest box with an entry-hole facing the tree stem. However, in 2013 the Wildlife Trust for Bedfordshire, Cambridgeshire and Northamptonshire designed a new model with a more restricted entry from underneath to deter bird competitors; this was anecdotally reported to perform better for dormouse. The performance of these two boxes was compared by randomly locating boxes of each model across one site and then monitoring uptake after two to five years. Hazel dormice showed a strong preference for the Brampton box. No birds were found to successfully use the Brampton box, and the lack of competition with birds and/or reduced ectoparasite loads from previous bird nesting activity may be significant factors in the selection of this box. However, when conventional boxes that had previously been occupied by birds were omitted from the paired study, hazel dormouse still showed a significant preference for the Brampton box which indicates that other factors are also involved; these may include superior insulatory properties of the Brampton box, two entrances rather than one offering better security from predators, or the different ages of the two different box types in this study affecting ectoparasite loads.
Accurate species identification in the shrew genus Suncus is often difficult because of subtle external and cranial morphological differences among taxa. Quantitative morphometric assessment is therefore important for evaluating species-level variation and improving taxonomic resolution within the genus. In this study, we assessed morphometric variation among five South Asian species of Suncus (S. etruscus, S. montanus, S. murinus, S. niger and S. stoliczkanus) using 629 museum specimens deposited in the Zoological Survey of India. External body and craniomandibular measurements were analysed using descriptive statistics, and multivariate statistical approaches. The results revealed clear interspecific differences in body and cranial size, with S. murinus representing the largest species and S. etruscus the smallest. Principal component analysis demonstrated that overall body and cranial size accounted for most of the observed variation and effectively separated the examined taxa, although partial overlap was observed among intermediate-sized species. Multivariate analyses indicated significant interspecific differences across all examined variables. The findings demonstrate that morphometric approaches are useful for distinguishing South Asian Suncus species and highlight the importance of museum collections for documenting morphological variation in poorly studied small mammals.
Natural landscapes are under constant transformation due to human activities, which force carnivores to adjust their behavior to increasing contact with humans and domestic animals. The spatial distribution and activity of a predator are generally correlated with those of their principal prey species. However, these activities may also be counterbalanced by the need to avoid potentially agonistic encounters with larger predators, both native and exotic. We used occupancy models and temporal overlap coefficients to evaluate whether the use of habitat and activity patterns of the ocelot in a semiarid domain of northeastern Brazil are influenced by the distance from human settlements, the occurrence of prey species, top predators (puma and jaguar), and domestic dogs. The occurrence of Spix’s cavy was the only covariate that influenced ocelot occupancy, with a positive correlation. The detection probability of the ocelot was influenced positively by the occurrence of the rock cavy, and there was a high level of temporal overlap between these two species. The top predators did not influence the spatiotemporal distribution of the ocelot, which indicates that their niches are differentiated by dietary parameters related to their differences in body size. No evidence was found of spatial interactions between ocelots and free-ranging dogs, and there was only a moderate temporal overlap. Our findings have contributed to expanding knowledge of the spatial and temporal ecology of the ocelot, a Neotropical mesopredator, in a still poorly explored environment from a scientific perspective, such as the Brazilian Caatinga.
Insectivorous bats are widely recognised as effective biocontrol agents. However, assessments of their effectiveness as service providers have traditionally relied on measures of foraging behaviour, such as activity levels and trophic ecology. Increasing evidence suggests that a more complete evaluation of bat-mediated biocontrol requires integrative frameworks that consider not only foraging behaviour but also species- and population-level attributes of both bats and their target pests. Here, we tested this premise using the study of Blažek et al. (2025) as a case study. Specifically, we applied the Service Providing Unit (SPU) framework to assess whether bat assemblages inhabiting forest-dominated landscapes of southern Moravia, Czech Republic, can continue to provide effective biocontrol of Operophtera brumata during late-autumn outbreaks, despite reduced overall bat activity and a low dietary preference for flying geometrid moths. Our SPU estimates indicate that effective suppression of O. brumata requires bat population densities ranging from 2.44 to 18.41 bats ha−1, depending on assumptions regarding diet composition. Given estimated bat densities of 10–25 bats ha−1 at the study site during late autumn, the local bat assemblage is likely capable of exerting substantial control over O. brumata populations during the adult stage. This potential persists even under conditions of reduced foraging activity associated with less favourable climatic conditions and relatively low pest consumption resulting from limited prey preference. Importantly, these findings do not contradict the conclusions of Blažek et al. (2025). Rather, they extend them by showing that reduced bat activity and low prey preference, when considered in isolation, may underestimate the capacity of bats to deliver effective biocontrol services. More broadly, our study underscores the importance of incorporating species- and population-level processes associated with both predators and pests into assessments of ecosystem services. Although the SPU framework necessarily relies on several assumptions, it offers a mechanistic and ecologically grounded approach for improving quantitative evaluations of biocontrol services provided by bats and other insectivorous flying vertebrates, including birds.
Consumptive or interference competition is observed between species inhabiting the same area and belonging to the same guild. This study compared two sympatric ungulate species, sika deer (Cervus nippon) and Japanese serows (Capricornis crispus), with respect to three major niche dimensions—habitat use, diel activity patterns, and food habits—and evaluated the extent of niche overlap with the aim of understanding the mechanisms of competition and coexistence. Camera trap surveys and dietary analyses were conducted in the cool-temperate forests of Gunma, central Japan, from July 2023 to July 2024. Generalized linear models and nonmetric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) were used to evaluate the habitat use. Diel activity patterns were evaluated using circular kernel density estimation, and NMDS was used to evaluate food habits. Among the three niche dimensions, the overlap in habitat use and diet were observed, while the niche partitioning in diel activity pattern was observed between the both species. Specifically, while Japanese serows prefer steep slopes year-round, sika deer prefer gentler slopes in the non-snowy season. In addition, Japanese serows exhibited a greater diversity of forage plants, whereas sika deer exhibited a high dependence on graminoids. The differences in activity pattern, microhabitats and food resources were thought to facilitate the coexistence of the two species.
Mustelids represent the largest family within the order Carnivora, comprising 64 species globally, with India hosting 17 species across diverse ecosystems. Despite their ecological importance as apex predators and their roles in trophic cascades and seed dispersal, mustelids remain the least studied carnivore group in India. This review systematically examines the status of mustelid research in India over four decades (1985–2025) to identify knowledge gaps and propose future research directions. A comprehensive literature search across Web of Science, Scopus, and Google Scholar yielded 158 publications. Results reveal significant research biases within taxonomic, geographic and thematic areas. As the semi-aquatic species receiving disproportionate attention that terrestrial mustelid species (p < 0.05), only 21.3
Medium-sized carnivores often rely on anthropogenic food sources, such as cultivated fruits, as food subsidies. This study investigated the role of cultivated fruits, particularly Japanese persimmons (Diospyros kaki), as food subsidies for medium-sized carnivores in heavy snowfall environments, focusing on spatial scales, landscape context, and the duration of persimmon availability. We hypothesized that the use of cultivated fruits by medium-sized carnivores would vary with the surrounding landscape and that Japanese persimmons would be utilized throughout the winter in rural landscapes. To test these hypotheses, we analyzed the frequency of cultivated fruits in fecal samples collected from different landscapes (March to mid-April 2023) and monitored persimmon use using camera traps (December 2022 to April 2023). Cultivated fruits occurred more frequently in feces of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and Japanese martens (Martes melampus) collected from rural landscapes with a higher proportion of surrounding agricultural areas within 500- or 1000-m radius. Camera-trap data further revealed that Japanese persimmons were used by red foxes, raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides) and Japanese martens throughout the winter, including periods of deep snow cover, with animals digging up fallen and buried fruits. These findings indicate that abandoned fruit trees, particularly Japanese persimmons, function as an important food subsidy for medium-sized carnivores in heavy snowfall environments. This study suggests the importance of incorporating spatial scale and landscape context when assessing anthropogenic food subsidies and provides insights relevant to wildlife management in regions experiencing farmland abandonment.
Bioacoustic studies of bats have advanced significantly in recent decades, driven by the popularization of ultrasonic recorders and the training of human resources; however, many species still lack detailed descriptions of their echolocation calls. We hypothesised that recording conditions (free-flight vs. flight tent) significantly alter the structure of echolocation calls. Natalus macrourus echolocation calls based on our studies of individuals in caves of Serra dos Carajás, Pará. We analyzed 89 bat passes (39 in free flight, 50 in flight tents), totaling 2,216 pulses. Natalus macrourus emits downward frequency-modulated calls with short durations. In free flight, the Frequency of Maximum Energy (FME) mostly occurred in the second harmonic (97.7
The Caspian red deer Cervus elaphus maral, a large mammal endemic to the Hyrcanian forests in northern Iran, is particularly susceptible to habitat fragmentation, reduced genetic diversity, and climate change. To assess the genetic structure and diversity of this subspecies, a total of 58 D-loop sequences, obtained in the present study, were combined with an additional 24 sequences from GenBank and used to reconstruct the phylogenetic trees. Habitat suitability was modeled using 16 key environmental and climatic variables influencing red deer distribution. A total of 482 presence points, recorded between 2021 and 2022, were used in five individual models and an ensemble model to predict current and future habitat suitability. Projections extending to the year 2100 were generated under both optimistic and pessimistic climate scenarios. Genetic analyses revealed two major genetic groups: a distinct population in the western Hyrcanian forests and eight subpopulations in the central and eastern regions. Genetic diversity showed high haplotype diversity and low nucleotide diversity, a pattern that may be consistent with recent population expansion following historical contraction. The western population has likely experienced long-term isolation from other populations within the study area due to habitat barriers that reduce connectivity and limit dispersal. Habitat suitability modeling indicated that forests with dense vegetation comprise the main suitable habitats. Climate change projections indicate that by 2100, significant habitat loss may occur, particularly in low-lying areas near human settlements and at elevations above 2000 m. Our ensemble projections for 2100 indicate stable suitability in the central forest, with potential increases toward the eastern and western margins. Although many of the optimal habitats are currently protected, the findings underscore the urgent need for an integrated conservation network encompassing the entire Hyrcanian region.
Assessing sexual dimorphism (SD) is an important step in evaluating divergence among cryptic species of Nannospalax leucodon superspecies, although evolution of SD remains poorly understood. We analysed sexual size dimorphism (SSD) and sexual shape dimorphism (SShD) in dorsal and ventral cranial views of four cryptic species from Serbia and one from North Macedonia. Significant SSD and SShD were found in both cranial views in all cryptic species except N. l. syrmiensis, where the absence of SD may be linked to urbanisation. Males and females of each cryptic species shared common allometric trajectories, and allometry significantly influenced cranial shape variation. After correcting for allometry, SSD in upper incisors width and SShD in the ventral cranium remained significant only in N. l. montanoserbicus. Shape differences between sexes were consistent across cryptic species and closely reflected allometric changes. The observed pattern of SD may represent an ancestrally inherited condition, as the most sexually dimorphic cryptic species, N. l. montanoserbicus, is also among the evolutionarily oldest. Because SSD and SShD were detected in most examined cryptic species, male and female size and overall shape data should not be pooled in future studies. Larger and more robust male crania, with broader upper incisors, may indicate greater bite force, while selection favouring SSD likely contributes to SShD. Although occupying similar ecological niches, males dig longer burrows, especially during mating, provide no parental care, and show higher aggression. These behavioural differences between sexes indicate that sexual, rather than natural, selection primarily drives SD in N. leucodon superspecies.
Monitoring small mammal populations can provide essential insights into broader ecosystem health; however, survey methods can be difficult and time-consuming, with traditional options often involving live trapping. Trail cameras are increasingly used to monitor small mammals, offering a non-invasive method to collect data on species such as voles, mice, and shrews. We compared two camera trap housing designs, the Littlewood Box (selfie-style images) and the novel BucketBuddy (top-down images) across clay and sandy soils at a rewilded site in Lincolnshire, UK, over five continuous weeks (720 total trap days). BucketBuddy traps produced higher than predicted detections across all family groups, with significantly greater vole and shrew detections, while mice detections were evenly distributed. Soil type alone did not significantly affect detections, although Littlewood boxes performed better than expected on sand. Sandy soils supported greater diversity for both Shannon and Simpson indices, with BucketBuddy on sand achieving the highest diversity, while BucketBuddy on clay recorded highest overall counts. Both designs are suitable for citizen science, but their use should reflect monitoring goals, with the BucketBuddy recommended for vole and shrew-focused studies. These findings support camera trapping as a practical, low-cost method for citizen science monitoring of small mammals in the UK.
This study presents the first assessment of the activity patterns of the Balkan chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra balcanica) in Greece using camera traps, with a focus on potential differences between forested and open habitats. We deployed 49 camera traps across northwestern Greece (2015–2020), targeting areas with high chamois presence. Thirty-nine cameras yielded usable data (6,152 camera days). We analyzed seasonal and diel activity patterns based on independent photographic events. Chamois had a daily activity ranging from 9:00 to 21:00 and a peak at 11:00. The species used both forested and open areas, but we found no substantial differences in their activity patterns between the two. Nocturnal activity was generally low but increased during autumn in open areas, coinciding with the rutting season. We recommend a systematic camera trap deployment in future studies to evaluate activity overlap with sympatric species and the effects of human disturbance on chamois behavior.
The American mink (Neogale vison) is an invasive alien carnivore that poses a major threat to several native European species and is the primary cause of the decline of the critically endangered European mink (Mustela lutreola). In Spain, the spread of American mink has had severe impacts on the remaining European mink population, and earlier culling campaigns aimed at preventing further colonisation have proven largely ineffective. Increasing the efficiency of capture methods used in eradication programmes against the American mink is therefore essential for the species’ conservation. We compared the performance of two trapping approaches: conventional cage-traps placed along riverbanks and floating mink rafts. Fieldwork was conducted in autumn 2014 at 255 sites on eight rivers in northern Spain, covering 260 km of watercourse. At each site, one or two cage-traps and one mink raft were deployed simultaneously during three trapping periods. Across all periods, 168 American mink and 24 European mink were captured. American mink capture rates were influenced by trapping method, trapping period and effort. Mink rafts were significantly more effective, accounting for 138 American mink captures compared with 30 from cage-traps on the riverbank. In contrast, captures of European mink were not associated with any of the variables examined. These findings show that mink rafts substantially increase the efficiency of American mink removal. Incorporating this technique into eradication programmes would strengthen ongoing control efforts and provide meaningful benefits for the conservation of the remaining European mink population in Spain.
