The finding of Apis florea in Malta provides a unique opportunity to investigate early pathogen dynamics in a non-native honey bee species entering an insular ecosystem. A comprehensive molecular screening of adult workers was performed to assess pathogen prevalence, abundance, replication activity, and genetic identity. The analysis revealed a high prevalence of DWV genotype A and Nosema ceranae, alongside the detection of ABPV, CBPV, SBV, and BQCV. Strand-specific RT-PCR confirmed active viral replication for all detected viruses. Sequencing demonstrated complete homology among positive individuals for each viral species, suggesting a founder effect and introduction of a restricted pathogen genetic pool. Phylogenetic comparisons showed high similarity with globally distributed strains, including Asian-associated lineages, while DWV-B and Nosema apis were not detected. The overall pathogen assemblage appears defined and biologically coherent, supporting the hypothesis that infections were co-introduced from the area of origin rather than acquired from the Maltese environment. Given the ecological sensitivity of island systems, continued longitudinal monitoring will be essential to determine whether A. florea will become an established pathogen reservoir within the Maltese pollinator community or will remain a transient carrier of infections associated with a single introduction episode.
The blackfly species Simulium noelleri Friederichs species complex is recorded for the first time from the fauna of Central Kazakhstan. The study is based on materials collected from early May to September 2025 from the Esil River within the city of Astana. Despite their medical and veterinary importance as vectors of filarial parasites and agents of severe dermatological reactions, the blackfly fauna of Central Kazakhstan remains insufficiently studied. A total of 15 imagoes (5 males and 10 females), 146 larvae, and 85 pupae were examined and identified. Larvae and pupae were sampled from various submerged substrates, including stones, construction debris, and floating plastic waste, indicating the ability of the species to colonize heavily anthropogenically modified urban habitats. Morphological descriptions of the male genitalia, including the ventral plate, median sclerite and gonostyli, are provided and illustrated. The ecological and hydrological characteristics of the habitat are discussed, highlighting the preference of this taxon for lowland river systems with low current velocity (0.2–0.3 m/s) and water temperature of 20 °C. S. noelleri species complex is a multivoltine species with three generations per season. This finding significantly expands the known distribution range of S. noelleri species complex and provides the first detailed morphological description for Central Kazakhstan.
Apis mellifera subspecies exhibit strong adaptation to their respective natural habitats; however, they display varying responses to thermal stress. In the present study, we examined the expression of lethal(2)-essential-for-life-like (l(2)efl) gene variants (724449, 724231, 410087, 724405, 724488, 724274, and 724367), as well as histone-lysine N-methyltransferase trithorax (trx) and polycomb protein Su(z)12 mRNA, in the eggs of two honeybee subspecies that exhibit clear differences in their thermal adaptation. The results revealed significantly higher expression levels of (l2efl variants: 724449, 724231, 410087, 724405, 724488, 724274, and 724367), polycomb protein Su(z)12 mRNA (ID: 409170), and histone-lysine N-methyltransferase (trx) (ID: 408716) in the eggs exposed to thermal stress compared to untreated controls in both A. mellifera subspecies. The main fold change between treated and control eggs reached approximately 200-fold for l2efl-724367, 100-fold for l2efl-724274, 40-fold for l2efl-724488, suggesting a robust heat-shock-like mechanism in response to thermal stress in early embryos of both subspecies. The results also showed distinct changes in l2efl and trx expression levels in both subspecies. While A. m. carnica exhibited higher expression of certain l2efl variants and trx, A. m. jemenitica showed stronger activation of other l2efl members and Su(z)12. The expression of Su(z)12 increased 86-fold more in A. m. jemenitica than in A. m. carnica. This might reflect different adaptive strategies in both subspecies. These findings suggest that thermal exposure in A. mellifera embryos not only triggers classical stress-response genes but also modulates epigenetic pathways that could contribute to transgenerational thermotolerance.
Sexual size dimorphism and morphometric variation provide valuable insights into population ecology, habitat quality, and evolutionary processes in insects. However, morphometric data for saproxylic beetles remain limited across much of Europe, particularly in the Carpathian Mountains of Romania, which host some of the largest contiguous forest ecosystems and are a major biodiversity hotspot for these species, despite their high conservation importance. We investigated sexual size dimorphism patterns and allometric relationships in two protected saproxylic beetles, Osmoderma barnabita Motschulsky, 1845 (Scarabaeidae) and Rosalia alpina Linnaeus, 1758 (Cerambycidae), from the Putna-Vrancea Natural Park, Romania. Between 2022 and 2025, we captured 776 Osmoderma barnabita and 268 Rosalia alpina individuals using pheromone-baited traps and measured body length, body width, and fresh mass. Osmoderma barnabita exhibited weak male-biased sexual size dimorphism, with males slightly larger in body length (+3.4%) and body mass (+5.0%), while body width showed no significant difference between sexes. In contrast, Rosalia alpina displayed female-biased sexual size dimorphism across all traits, with the strongest dimorphism in body mass (+13.2%). Standardized Major Axis regression showed positive allometry of body width relative to body length in both species, indicating increased robustness with size. Body mass scaled isometrically with body length, with no sex-specific differences in allometric slopes, suggesting that sexual size dimorphism reflects uniform size shifts along shared developmental trajectories. Linear Discriminant Analysis achieved only moderate classification accuracy (63.5% for Osmoderma barnabita; 65.3% for Rosalia alpina), reflecting substantial morphological overlap between sexes. These findings establish baseline morphometric data essential for long-term population monitoring and conservation planning in the Eastern Carpathian forests.
This study aimed at comparing the insecticidal and repellency activity of a commercial diatomaceous earth (DE) formulation (Silicosec (R), Biofa AG) and a horsetail powder-Equisetum telmateia (Ehrh.) (Equisetales: Equisetaceae) against the lesser grain borer, Rhyzopertha dominica (F.) (Coleoptera: Bostrychidae). These substances were mixed with soft wheat grains at concentrations of 1000 and 2000 ppm and tested on unsexed adult beetles of mixed ages. Insecticidal assays were conducted at three exposure intervals (2, 7 and 14 days), after which the wheat samples were destructively sifted and mortality was recorded. The highest mortality was achieved with the DE, and the percentage of dead beetle significantly increased with exposure interval and concentrations. On the other hand, treatments with the horsetail powder did not significantly affect beetle mortality, regardless of the dose and exposure interval. Repellency tests, which were run according to Mohan and Fields's method, showed a higher activity of both doses of the DE in comparison to the horsetail powder. The difference between the two application doses of the DE was statistically supported only at 24 h of exposure, whereas no differences were detected between the two doses at 48 and 72 h. Based on our findings, the horsetail powder seems not to be a reliable alternative to DEs for the control ofR. dominica. Considering both efficacy and cost-effectiveness, the 1000 ppm DE dose could represent the best compromise for the management of the lesser grain borer in commercial applications.
This research offers an extensive molecular characterization of Dactylopius opuntiae populations from Palestine, utilizing three genetic markers (18S rRNA, COI, and 12S rRNA) in conjunction with RAPD-PCR analysis. The findings demonstrated pronounced genetic similarities across Palestinian isolates, corroborating the concept of a recent invasion or a shared ancestral origin. According to 18S rRNA sequences, Palestinian isolates exhibited 100% similarity among themselves and with several GenBank isolates, while their identities with D. confusus ranged from 99.8% to 100%, therefore affirming a highly proximate evolutionary link. Mitochondrial markers demonstrated marked enhanced discriminating power. The COI sequence similarity among Palestinian D. opuntiae isolates varied from 99.6% to 100%, but diminished to 87.9% to 89.4% with D. confusus, 78.5% to 79.6% with D. coccus, and 79.1% to 80.7% with D. tomentosus. Likewise, 12S rRNA study revealed identities ranging from 71.7% to 74.2% between D. opuntiae and D. tomentosus, indicating considerable evolutionary difference. Therefore, 12S rRNA marker offered stronger selective strength for species delimitation. RAPD-PCR produced 14 bands, with 78.6% exhibiting polymorphism, and categorized Palestinian isolates into four principal genetic groupings. The data indicate that mitochondrial markers are particularly efficient for species delimitation and phylogenetic reconstruction within Dactylopius genus. Therefore, the findings obtained in this study provide valuable molecular data that can enhance biological control initiatives, refine pest identification accuracy, and aid in the monitoring of invasion routes and population dispersion of D. opuntiae in agricultural settings.
Tuta absoluta is a notorious pest causing serious economic damages in tomato crops, worldwide. Macrolophus pygmaeus (Mp) and Nesidiocoris tenuis (Nt) are the most important natural enemies of this pest. However, their predation rates have been studied only in Petri dishes when T. absoluta eggs were placed randomly on a tomato leaflet. Our study aimed to compare Mp and Nt efficacy in locating and consuming T. absoluta eggs when offered at three densities (3, 5 and 8 eggs/dish) and four distribution patterns: i) the natural oviposition pattern (the one most frequently) followed by T. absoluta females ovipositing the respective egg number on a leaflet, ii) the linear pattern, by placing the eggs on the central vein, iii) the clumped pattern, placing them in a group and iv) the peripheral, placing them close to the leaflet edge. After 15, 30 and 60 the number of consumed eggs was recorded. Results showed that both predators had similar prey searching efficiency when the eggs were positioned following the natural egg distribution pattern. However, when the eggs had been placed following the clumped pattern (at 3 and 5 egg density), Mp consumed more eggs than Nt 15' and 30' after their releasing. In addition, Mp consumed more eggs than Nt when placed following the linear egg distribution, 15' after predator releasing. Consequently, Mp showed higher adaptability in prey searching than Nt. These results indicate that Mp may be more efficient than Nt to locate and consume T. absoluta eggs when laid following different distribution patterns.
Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever (DHF) remains a major public health challenge in Indonesia, where Aedes aegypti is the primary vector. Pyrethroids, particularly permethrin and deltamethrin, are widely used for vector control. However, their prolonged use has led to resistance, largely mediated by knockdown resistance (kdr) mutations in the voltage-gated sodium channel (VGSC) gene. This study aimed to determine the mortality status, frequency, and distribution of kdr mutations, as well as their association with phenotypic resistance in Ae. aegypti populations from Padang City, Bogor City, and Bogor Regency. Adult females were subjected to World Health Organization (WHO) susceptibility bioassays. Genomic DNA from individual specimens was analyzed to detect kdr mutations using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequencing. All populations showed very low mortality (1-37%) with both insecticides after 24 h, indicating high resistance. Kaplan-Meier analysis showed near-complete survival under permethrin for all populations, while deltamethrin caused greater survival decline in Bogor City and Bogor Regency than Padang (log-rank: permethrin p = 0.051, deltamethrin p < 0.05).. Molecular analysis detected S989P, V1016G, and F1534C mutations, with mutant genotypes more prevalent than wild-type genotypes at all sites, and the highest frequencies were observed for all treatments. However, the association analysis showed no significant association between kdr mutations and phenotypic resistance (p > 0.05) in the study population. These findings demonstrate widespread pyrethroid resistance and high frequencies of kdr mutations, highlighting the need for larger sample sizes and more balanced sampling designs to better understand the role of kdr mutations in pyrethroid resistance.
Insect pests are significant challenge to rice production, with over 20 species recognized as major insect pests, including some stink bugs (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae). The rice black bug, Scotinophara coarctata (Fabricius), is an invasive insect species firstly reported in southern Thailand, which later spread northward throughout rice-growing regions. Recently, our research team firstly discovered another insect species that has not been reported in Thailand, the white-spotted stink bug, Eysarcoris ventralis (Westwood), that infests rice fields and causes similar damage to that of the rice black bug. However, distinguishing between these two insect pests in the field is challenging due to their similar characters. We, therefore, pursue the differentiation between these two insects using both morphological characters and barcoding of COI genes, including investigation of the population status. The results showed that these insects display some differences in morphological characters. DNA barcoding of the partial COI gene separated them into different clades. The sample of S. coarctata is arranged in the same clade with S. lurida. All of the E. ventralis samples studied were placed in the same clade with the sample from China, indicating that they were related, but separated from other species of the genus Eysarcoris. The outcomes confirmed that these rice stink bugs are separate species and can be distinguished using both morphological examination and DNA barcoding of the COI gene. The analysis suggested a relatively high degree of genetic similarity among geographically diverse populations of Eysarcoris, with some interspecific differences still detectable within the genus.
The box tree pyralid moth (Cydalima perspectalis), which originates from Asia and has been introduced to Europe in 2006, has now infested several countries and continents outside its natural distribution. This herbivore is specialized on Buxus spp. and has destroyed not only many ornamental plantings, which are often of historical value, but also boxwood in its natural range, where it is often part of certain forest types. To date, no effective natural enemies are known, and plantings can only be saved by frequent insecticide applications, while natural boxwoods are threatened or have already gone extinct after massive outbreaks of this pest. During a monitoring in 2025, we discovered a parasitoid population in one of the first infested natural Buxus spp. stands in Europe, the boxwood forest near Grenzach-Wyhlen, Germany. According to our data, this Campoplegine larval parasitoid, Eriborus sp., is not native, but may have been accidentally introduced in the years after the introduction of its host nearby.
With the exception of live prey, some lady beetle species consume alternative foods including pollen, nectar and fruit. These alternative foods support the development and reproduction of certains coccinellid species, while others do not benefit as much. The study examined the effects of prey and alternative food sources on the development and reproduction of predaceous coccinellid Coelophora inaequalis (Fabricius) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), utilizing eggs of rice moth Corcyra cephalonica (Stainton) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) and bee pollen as alternative foods, while Aphis gossypii Glover (Hemiptera: Aphididae) served as the essential prey. Results revealed that 1st instar of C. inaequalis larvae fed on A. gossypii and A. gossypii supplemented with bee pollen success to complete development with no significant differences in growth duration and survival rates (100%) across different developmental stages, including adult longevity and percentage of egg hatch. However, the total number of laid egg was significantly higher on the group that consumed exclusively A. gossypii. Results indicated that the switch from natural prey to exclusively alternative prey affects variously each instar larvae and adults of C. inaequalis. The 3rd and 4th instars larvae, which have been fed on A. gossypii since 1st instar and then switched to exclusively alternative foods failed to progress to the next developmental stage. Only the 2nd instar larvae fed exclusively on bee pollen or rice moth eggs were able to progress to the 3rd and 4th instar. Likewise, male and female adults of C. inaequalis survived for a temporarily time when exclusively fed on bee pollen or rice moth eggs.
Chelidura Latreille, 1825 is a genus of robust apterous earwigs with a Palaearctic distribution. Thanks to research carried out in Italy, Spain and France, the recent general reassessment of the European alpine species of Chelidura has clarified its distribution across Europe. Only one species, Chelidura aptera (von Charpentier, 1825), has been distinguished in the Alps so far, and we have subjected its populations to detailed morphometric and molecular analyses. The results revealed cryptic diversity and allowed us to define the presence of at least five species in the Alps: C. aptera (von Charpentier, 1825), C. montana (Gen & eacute;, 1832), stat. nov., C. alpina (Gen & eacute;, 1832), comb. nov., C. rhaetica sp. nov. and C. osellarum sp. nov. The diagnostic morphological characters of recognized species are described and illustrated, and an identification key for males of Western European Chelidura is provided. The distribution of Chelidura species is patchy, with most occurring in subalpine and alpine zones at altitudes between 1,600 and 2,300 metres in the Alps. The occupied habitat is characterized by rocky landscapes with sparse vegetation. According to current knowledge, all recognized species exhibit allopatric distribution patterns, and their ranges do not overlap. The recent decline in the numbers of Chelidura specimens sighted at many historical localities may suggest possible local extinctions or a shift to higher elevations in response to environmental changes.
In the current century, there has been an increase in vegetable production in protected agriculture, as well as an increasing incidence of some insect pests. For example, some hemipterans such as mealybugs are sometimes a problem with greenhouse vegetables, but farmers do not have the same problem with vegetables grown in open fields. The objective of this work was to identify species of mealybugs and their natural enemies on vegetables in protected agriculture in México. Sampling was carried out in greenhouses and net houses, mainly in pepper and tomato, from 11 regions of the country. Mealybugs adult females were collected for processing and mounting, and some mealybugs immature and adults were kept in net devices to record the emergence of their parasitoids. Four species of mealybugs were identified, Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley, Phenacoccus solani Ferris, and Phenacoccus madeirensis Green were collected more frequently; Ferrisia virgata Cockerell (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) was recovered only once. Ten species of parasitoids were identified: Acerophagus angelicus Howard, Aenasius arizonensis Girault, Dicarnosis ripariensis Kerrich, Cheiloneurus sp. Westwood, Ectromaptosis americana Howard, Anagyrus paralia Noyes and Menezes, Holcencyrtus osborni Timberlake, Anagyrus tristis Noyes and Hayat (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), Chartocerus axillaris De Santis (Hymenoptera: Signiphoridae) and Allotropa sp. Förster (Hymenoptera: Platygastridae). Three of them were first recorded in México, and six had a new host record.
The fig leafhopper, Ficocyba ficaria (Horváth, 1897) (Cicadellidae: Typhlocybinae: Typhlocybini) was described from the coast of the Adriatic sea. Since then the species has been reported from several countries, primarily from the Mediterranean area of the Western Palaearctic Region. In the course of the current study the species was found at several locations in Hungary, indicating the presence of stable populations. An overview of currently known distribution of the species is provided. Recent records of the species including results of the present study indicate range expansion of the fig leafhopper.
Throughout history, insects have been silent yet potent agents of change, shaping the destiny of human civilizations in profound ways. They have actively influenced the development of societies through their roles in ecological systems and their direct interactions with humans. As carriers of disease, destroyers of crops, and symbols of both fear and resilience, insects have repeatedly forced humanity to adapt and innovate. The transformative power of these small creatures lies not only in their biological characteristics but also in their ability to alter human demographic, economic, and cultural trajectories in unexpected ways. Epidemics such as the Black Death, carried by fleas, and the enduring scourge of malaria, spread by mosquitoes, illustrate how insects have influenced demographic patterns, disrupted economies, and altered the trajectory of empires (Cantor 2002). Meanwhile, infestations of locusts and other agricultural pests have driven famines that reshaped societies, spurring migration and social upheaval. Beyond these direct impacts, insects have left an indelible mark on human consciousness, inspiring fear, innovation, and even art, as they became symbols of both destruction and resilience. This article explores the multifaceted influence of insects on human history, examining their roles in catalyzing social, economic, and cultural transformations. By understanding these interactions, we not only uncover the profound interconnectedness of humans and nature but also gain insights into addressing modern challenges posed by insects in a rapidly changing world.
The codling moth (C. pomonella) is a notorious pest of apples, pears and other pome fruits, causing significant economic damage during outbreaks. This study investigated the voltinism of codling moth across various climatic conditions at three distinct Moroccan apple orchards; two in the Atlas Mountains and one in the plain. Our objective was to assess the voltinism of the pest and to analyze its evolution in relation with the temperature factor through different locations. We employed phenological models to predict insect generation patterns and the onset of adult flights, and compared predictions with observed data obtained from trap catches. At all study sites, a single generation required an average accumulation of 549 DD close to some models assumptions. The study also highlighted the significant impact of temperature on the insect's voltinism and indicated that a warmer climate could lead to an additional generation. In the mountainous regions, the pest typically occurs on three generations, with a potential fourth one if the growing season exceeds 2000 DD. In the plain, the moth completes four generations. Furthermore, the advent of flights varied among locations, highlighting the need to account for the synchrony between insect emergence and host tree phenological stages when predicting the onset of moth activity. Finally, the study suggests that different models should be used in Morocco to predict moth flights accurately as observed data were consistently aligning with specific models at each location.
Aphids are phytophagous insects that damage a wide range of plant species and may act as vectors of several pathogens, including Cucumber Mosaic Virus (CMV). CMV seriously affects tomato crops but, although earlier studies have described CMV in northern Italy, little is known about the aphid species in the area that could be involved in its transmission in tomato fields. This three-year survey (2021–2023) focused on monitoring aphid populations in open field tomato crops in the northern Italian provinces of Piacenza, Cremona and Mantua. Sampling included both tomato plants and nearby weeds like Solanum nigrum , Convolvulus arvensis , Abutilon theophrasti or crop like Medicago sativa , which may serve as CMV reservoirs. DNA barcoding of the COI gene, along with morphological analysis where necessary, was used to identify the aphids. A total of 28 aphid taxa were identified from the collected samples, and 89.8% of all identified samples were known CMV vectors. Aphis fabae and Macrosiphum euphorbiae were the most frequently identified species. The greatest number of aphid specimens and species diversity were recorded during the first sampling of each year, whereas the highest sampling diversity was recorded in Piacenza. The current study provides a comprehensive qualitative assessment of the diverse aphid species associated with open field tomato crops in one of the most important districts for their cultivation in Italy.
In the current century, there has been an increase in vegetable production in protected agriculture, as well as an increasing incidence of some insect pests. For example, some hemipterans such as mealybugs are sometimes a problem with greenhouse vegetables, but farmers do not have the same problem with vegetables grown in open fields. The objective of this work was to identify species of mealybugs and their natural enemies on vegetables in protected agriculture in México. Sampling was carried out in greenhouses and net houses, mainly in pepper and tomato, from 11 regions of the country. Mealybugs adult females were collected for processing and mounting, and some mealybugs immature and adults were kept in net devices to record the emergence of their parasitoids. Four species of mealybugs were identified, Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley, Phenacoccus solani Ferris, and Phenacoccus madeirensis Green were collected more frequently; Ferrisia virgata Cockerell (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) was recovered only once. Ten species of parasitoids were identified: Acerophagus angelicus Howard, Aenasius arizonensis Girault, Dicarnosis ripariensis Kerrich, Cheiloneurus sp. Westwood, Ectromaptosis americana Howard, Anagyrus paralia Noyes and Menezes, Holcencyrtus osborni Timberlake, Anagyrus tristis Noyes and Hayat (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), Chartocerus axillaris De Santis (Hymenoptera: Signiphoridae) and Allotropa sp. Förster (Hymenoptera: Platygastridae). Three of them were first recorded in México, and six had a new host record.
