As social robots become increasingly integrated into children's daily lives, it remains unclear whether children apply the same normative standards to artificial agents as they do to humans. Drawing on social domain theory and a dual-process-informed distinction between categorical choice and graded appraisal, the present research examined preschoolers' binary decisions and appropriateness ratings concerning humans and robots in the conventional domain (Study 1) and the moral domain (Study 2). Two studies used a modified road-accident dilemma task. Across both studies, children's choices were strongly shaped by the behavioral valence of the sacrificial and saved targets; repeated-measures ANOVAs also suggested greater intervention in human than robot scenarios, although these agent-related choice effects were model-sensitive in LMM checks. Appropriateness ratings showed a domain-related pattern. In Study 1, ratings were comparable in human and robot scenarios, consistent with an egalitarian application of conventional standards. In Study 2, children rated saving an immoral human as more appropriate than saving an immoral robot, whereas ratings did not differ when the saved agents were moral. Because the direct cross-study interaction did not reach the conventional significance threshold, the domain contrast should be treated as suggestive rather than conclusive. These findings suggest that preschoolers may treat robots as procedural social actors in conventional contexts while granting humans greater presumed moral standing in morally consequential contexts.
Positive psychology has made substantial contributions to the scientific understanding of human flourishing, yet its conceptual architecture remains disproportionately grounded in WEIRD (Western, educated, industrialized, rich, democratic) populations. Prevailing models privilege intrapersonal processes-autonomy, self-efficacy, and personal achievement-while systematically under-theorizing the relational and moral dimensions through which happiness is experienced and evaluated in non-WEIRD societies. This article proposes a reformulation of happiness through the construct of relational well-being: a multi-level framework that reconceptualizes flourishing as emerging from the dynamic interplay between individuals and their embeddedness in social, relational, and moral worlds. Specifically, we define relational well-being as a pattern of flourishing constituted by four interdependent dimensions: (a) relational connectedness and belonging, (b) role fulfillment and reciprocal obligation, (c) interpersonal harmony and conflict regulation, and (d) moral embeddedness within social and cultural systems. Although these dimensions are not culturally exclusive, we argue that they are normatively foregrounded, elaboratively articulated, and more systematically organized in Chinese cultural contexts-making Chinese society a theoretically generative case for advancing a non-WEIRD account of well-being. Drawing primarily on traditional Chinese philosophical traditions-including Confucian, Taoist, and Buddhist perspectives-while acknowledging the dynamic transformation of contemporary Chinese culture, we develop a culturally grounded account of how relational processes constitute-rather than merely contextualize-the experience of happiness. Moving beyond a binary opposition between Chinese and Western models, we adopt a relative emphasis perspective that acknowledges cross-cultural overlap while mapping systematic divergences in the normative organization of well-being. We further address key methodological challenges in studying relational well-being, including construct validity, measurement equivalence, and the risk of conceptual ethnocentrism, and we outline a research agenda for developing culturally sensitive, multi-level assessment strategies. This article contributes to the ongoing project of building a genuinely inclusive positive psychology-one that integrates individual, relational, and collective dimensions of human flourishing and holds empirical validity beyond the WEIRD populations.
Online disinhibition significantly influences adolescents' communication and behaviors in digital environments, yet culturally adapted measurement tools remain limited in China. This study aimed to develop and validate a Chinese version of the Online Disinhibition Scale (ODS-C) based on Suler's (2004) theoretical framework. We translated and adapted Cheung et al.'s (2020) questionnaire through rigorous forward and backward translation protocols. Using a calibration sample (n = 686), we tested the scale's internal structure, reliability, and construct validity. A cross-validation sample (n = 687) was subsequently employed to verify and select the optimal internal structure of the ODS-C, assess measurement invariance across gender, and examine criterion validity based on relationships with internet addiction and cyberbullying perpetration. The final ODS-C demonstrated a hierarchical five-factor structure, in which dissociative anonymity and invisibility functioned as two distinct first-order factors subsumed under a higher-order anonymity factor, while the remaining four dimensions-asynchronicity, solipsistic introjection, dissociative imagination, and minimization of authority-operated as independent first-order factors. Results indicate that the ODS-C demonstrates high internal consistency, robust construct validity, and significant criterion validity. Evidence of measurement invariance confirmed the stability of the factor structure, loadings, and variances across genders. The ODS-C provides researchers and practitioners with a reliable and valid tool for assessing online disinhibition among Chinese adolescents, facilitating more culturally informed interventions and policies addressing digital behavior.
Second language (L2) learners often struggle to draw on embodied emotional experiences in the target language, which impedes their rapid and accurate interpretation of nonliteral ironic meaning. Grounded in embodied cognition theory, the present study examined how emojis and the valence congruity between emojis and contextual information modulate Chinese EFL learners' comprehension of positive and negative irony in computer-mediated communication. The results of this study revealed that emojis improved accuracy in negative-but not positive-irony comprehension, whereas valence congruity enhanced accuracy in positive-but not negative-irony. Moreover, both the presence of emojis and valence congruity accelerated irony processing. These findings indicate that emojis and their emotional valences facilitate L2 irony processing by bolstering learners' sensitivity to speakers' affective states, and offer important implications for L2 discourse processing research from an embodied cognition perspective.
Emotional labour (EL) has become a serious concern in the modern workplace due to the rapid development of the service-oriented economy. Existing literature reviews of emotional labour studies leave many questions unexplored. This study addresses these questions by conducting a holistic review of 143 high-impact empirical articles published in peer-reviewed journals from APA PsycInfo, EBSCO Academic Search Premier, Scopus, and Web of Science using the TCCM framework (Theory-Context-Characteristics-Methodology). The document search process is visualised with a PRISMA diagram. We point out several future directions for scholars who are interested in emotional labour. For example, emotional labour research needs to transition from cross-sectional designs to multi-wave designs. Most importantly, this study serves as a roadmap for scholars to navigate the complexity of emotional labour research and provides practitioners with evidence-based strategies to mitigate the negative influence of emotional labour.
This study aimed to investigate the relationship between marital status and the risk of cognitive decline in middle-aged and older adults, with a particular focus on gender differences. Data were derived from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS), using Cox proportional hazards models to examine the association between marital status and cognitive decline. The analysis controlled for sociodemographic factors (age, education, smoking, alcohol consumption), lifestyle factors (physical activity, sleep), and gender. Gender-stratified analyses were conducted to explore potential differences in the protective effects of marriage on cognitive function. The overall association between marital status and cognitive decline risk did not reach statistical significance after controlling for confounders. However, gender-stratified analysis revealed that marriage was significantly negatively associated with cognitive decline risk in men. No significant association was observed in women. Age remained a significant predictor of cognitive impairment. Marriage may be associated with cognitive function, particularly among men, while no significant association was observed in women. These findings suggest that gender differences should be taken into account in cognitive health interventions. Future studies are warranted to explore the potential mediating roles of marital quality, social support, and emotional interactions in shaping cognitive outcomes.
This study develops a dynamic game model of intimate relationship conflicts that incorporates emotion regulation mechanisms, translating cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression into strategic parameters. The model simulates the dynamic evolution of defensive strategies and intervention paths, capturing the continuous interplay between emotional states and conflict behavior choices in realistic relational contexts. Using longitudinal tracking data from 320 couples and agent-based simulations, we validate the core mechanisms and demonstrate that flexibility in emotion regulation significantly reduces conflict intensity and shortens conflict cycles. When one partner's emotion regulation capacity is limited, power asymmetry intensifies defensive rigidity, highlighting the combined influence of neural coordination, relational fluidity, and micro-level cultural practices on conflict dynamics. By operationalizing emotion regulation as a computable variable within a formalized game-theoretic framework, this research bridges theoretical constructs and observable behavior, revealing how neural synchrony and relational context shape the selection and effectiveness of defensive strategies. The findings offer both theoretical and practical contributions: theoretically, the study provides a more integrated understanding of intimate relationship conflicts, emphasizing the joint roles of emotional, relational, and cultural factors in conflict evolution; practically, the model equips clinicians and family intervention practitioners with a structured, quantifiable tool for diagnosing conflict patterns and designing evidence-based strategies to reduce destructive behaviors and foster cooperative problem-solving. Overall, this study presents a concise yet comprehensive framework that advances both the conceptualization and empirical analysis of intimate relationship conflicts, offering actionable insights for intervention while highlighting the importance of integrating emotional, neural, and cultural dimensions in research and practice.
The association between problematic video gaming (PVG) and ADHD has long attracted attention. Dual-systems models posit that reward sensitivity (RS, the tendency to pursue rewards), inhibitory control (IC, the capacity to suppress prepotent responses), and the imbalance between them (where one system predominates over the other) constitute a useful framework for explaining their association. However, empirical tests of whether and how specific dual-system mechanisms explain the association or phenotypic differentiation of PVG and ADHD remain limited. We hypothesize that (H1) both RS and IC predict PVG and ADHD symptoms; (H2) the degree of imbalance between RS and IC is associated with both PVG and ADHD. Additionally, we explore whether the specific associations between imbalance and symptoms differ between PVG and ADHD. Two waves of data from 10,973 participants (52.43% male, aged 12-14 years) from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study were analyzed. Cross-lagged panel models (CLPM) and Response Surface Analysis (RSA) were used to assess shared and unique relationships of RS, IC, and their imbalance with PVG and ADHD. CLPM analyses found that RS predicted subsequent IC, IC predicted subsequent ADHD, and ADHD predicted subsequent PVG, suggesting H1 was only partially supported. RSA revealed that a greater degree of imbalance was associated with more severe PVG and ADHD symptoms (supporting H2), and that imbalance configurations exhibited both shared and disorder-specific patterns between PVG and ADHD. Specifically, reward sensitivity showed a linear association with PVG but a curvilinear association with ADHD, and IC correlated with ADHD only. We observed similarities between PVG and ADHD in the degree of dual-systems imbalance, alongside differences in imbalance configuration. These findings provide theoretical insight into dual-systems features linking PVG and ADHD and may inform future research on early identification and prevention in high-risk populations.
The present study aimed to design, develop, and validate a training package for treating student procrastination based on grounded theory. In the first phase, a qualitative grounded theory study was conducted to develop this intervention. The study population consisted of students enrolled at the Persian Gulf University in the academic year 2023-2024. In the quantitative phase of this study, a quasi-experimental pre-test-post-test control group design was employed. A multi-stage random sampling technique was used to select participants. The procrastination questionnaire was randomly distributed to 1000 students from the Persian Gulf University, stratified by faculty, major, and year of entry. The findings indicated that the procrastination treatment package was effective in reducing procrastination among students.
The OECD's first Survey on Social and Emotional Skills (SSES) in 2019 assessed 10- and 15-year-olds across ten cities, employing a framework of 15 skills organized into five dimensions aligned with the Big Five personality traits. While this adult-derived model offers a parsimonious structure for measuring social-emotional skills, its applicability to children and early adolescents across diverse cultural contexts remains largely untested. This study examined the structural validity of the SSES framework employing exploratory graph analysis (EGA)-a network psychometrics technique using skill facets as nodes, regularized partial correlations as edge weights, and the walktrap algorithm for community detection. Drawing on self-report data from 60,440 participants aged 10 and 15 across ten international cities, our analysis revealed that contrary to expectation, the hypothesized five-factor structure did not emerge in any age group or city. Among 10-year-olds, skills remained largely undifferentiated or showed only preliminary clustering in most cities, suggesting developmental immaturity in functional organization. Among 15-year-olds, three to four distinct dimensions emerged, with significant cross-city variation in composition. Developmental trajectories also differed culturally: Houston, Sintra, and Istanbul exhibited early-but-stagnant differentiation, while Suzhou showed rapid progression from undifferentiated to four-dimensional structure. These findings identify key limitations in applying the SSES framework: (1) the pattern of conditional dependencies among skill facets violates the local independence assumption underlying the five-factor model; (2) the organization of skills is not equivalent across ages: 10-year-olds show largely undifferentiated structures while 15-year-olds exhibit clearer differentiation; and (3) dimensional configurations vary substantially across cities, challenging assumptions of cross-cultural universality. The results inform researchers and policymakers about the framework's limitations and highlight the need for age- and culture-sensitive approaches to social-emotional skills assessment.
Positive psychology (PP) has become a key perspective in second language acquisition (SLA), with growing attention to learners' emotions, motivation, engagement, well-being, and self-regulation. However, existing PP-SLA studies have not been sufficiently mapped in terms of how theoretical frameworks are selected, classified, and operationalized. This scoping review aims to map and classify publication characteristics (e.g., geographic distribution, journal rankings) and the theoretical frameworks and models that have guided the application of PP in SLA. Following PRISMA extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR), the review was conducted in two stages. First, review, theoretical, and conceptual articles published between 2021 and 2025 were screened to identify higher-level theoretical discussions in PP-SLA research. Second, empirical studies published in 2025 were examined to capture the most recent operational applications of these frameworks. A total of 38 studies met the inclusion criteria, comprising 6 review articles and 32 empirical studies. Findings indicate that PP functions as the broad conceptual umbrella of the field, while Broaden-and-Build Theory, Control-Value Theory, Grit Theory, Flow Theory, Self-Determination Theory, and Social Cognitive Theory represent the most frequently used specific theories/models. The review further classifies the seven major frameworks into four higher-order categories: well-being and flourishing frameworks, emotion-centered theories, persistence and engagement theories, and motivational regulation theories. This scoping review contributes to PP-SLA research by moving beyond a list of individual theories and offering a hierarchical classification of theoretical framework use in the field. It also identifies key gaps concerning age-sensitive theorization, digital and non-formal learning contexts, cross-cultural applicability, teacher-related dimensions, and the need for stronger longitudinal and experimental designs.
The relationship between body mass index (BMI), gender, and specific depression-anxiety symptoms remains unclear. This study examined how BMI and gender are associated with depression-anxiety symptom networks in 9091 Chinese adults aged 19-65 years using the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) and the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7) scales. Participants were categorized into four BMI subgroups: underweight, normal weight, overweight, and obesity groups. Network analysis identified core symptoms, including "motor problems" (PHQ8), "uncontrollable worry" (GAD2), and "trouble relaxing" (GAD4). Differences in network structure were observed across BMI groups, with males showing variations between the underweight, normal weight, and obesity groups, and females demonstrating significant differences in both network structure and global strength between the underweight and overweight groups. Gender differences were also found in the global strength of the overall network and in the network structure of the normal weight group. Limitations include potential residual confounders, the cross-sectional design, reliance on self-reported data, and unbalanced sample sizes. These findings suggest that BMI may be associated with the depression-anxiety symptom network in Chinese adults, with distinct gender-specific patterns, highlighting the importance of considering both BMI and gender in developing targeted mental health interventions.
We explored how affective states, information affect, and source impacted health information adoption. Adoption of expert-sourced information was greater than that from GAI, in line with the source credibility framework. In negative or neutral states, or when receiving content from GAI, people preferred positive over negative information, consistent with the affect-as-information hypothesis.
Neurodevelopmental disorders (NDD) represent a heterogeneous group of conditions that are thought to be related to impaired brain development, which often leads to significant functional difficulties across various domains. According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) and the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD), conventional diagnostic frameworks mainly focus on categorical classifications for identifying and supporting children with NDD. Despite their merit throughout the history of special and inclusive education, various stakeholders revealed the imperfections of this categorical diagnostic system. One aim of this perspective review, thus, is to promote a transdiagnostic approach for understanding NDDs as a possible supplementation of the current categorical diagnosis system. At the same time, there is limited relevant research on psychological and ecological domains beyond the symptomatic and neurocognitive domains of NDD. We propose to extend the transdiagnostic approach within the framework of a biopsychosocial approach that integrates neurocognitive, psychological, and socioecological factors and aims to enhance the understanding of NDD and the broader context of inclusive education.
Does autonomy support retain its motivational benefits when digital distraction pervades the classroom? Drawing on self-determination theory and cognitive-resource perspectives, we proposed the Cognitive Availability Hypothesis: when attentional resources are depleted by smartphone presence, task choice cannot fulfill its motivational potential; protective structure-removing external digital distractions-functions as an enabling condition rather than a parallel instructional option. Using a fully counterbalanced 2 × 2 within-subjects crossover design (N = 121 Chinese undergraduates; 8 weeks), we independently manipulated protective structure (smartphone sequestration: present vs. absent) and autonomy support (task choice: present vs. absent) in university badminton classes, with flow as the primary outcome and class engagement as a secondary outcome. The Sequestration × Choice interaction was significant for flow: task choice had a negligible effect without sequestration but a moderate effect with sequestration. A parallel pattern emerged for engagement. Process-consistent analyses indicated that sequestration was associated with lower cognitive load and that the conditional choice effect on motivational regulation was most clearly expressed in identified regulation, the form of motivation that involves valuing and personally endorsing the activity. Manipulation checks confirmed that sequestration reduced perceived phone distraction without undermining perceived choice or choice authenticity. These findings suggest that in digitally saturated classrooms, establishing attentional conditions may precede, rather than merely complement, autonomy-supportive instruction.
Reward processing comprises reward sensitivity, motivation, and pleasure experience, but how these components jointly relate to schizotypal traits and psychosocial stress in young adult samples remains unclear. Using network analysis in a large Chinese young adult sample (N = 6814), we examined multivariate associations among reward sensitivity (BAS), schizotypal traits (MSS), reward motivation (MAP-SR), pleasure experience (TEPS), and psychosocial stress (ERI). The results indicated that BAS-Fun seeking showed the highest strength centrality and expected influence. MSS-Disorganized schizotypal traits served as a bridge node between reward sensitivity and reward motivation and pleasure experience. Subsequent mediation analysis also supported these findings. Network comparison tests indicated no difference in global strength between the high- and low-psychosocial-stress groups, but a significant difference in overall network structure. These findings highlight impulsive Fun seeking and disorganized schizotypal traits as potentially informative targets for mechanistic and intervention-oriented research across the psychosis continuum in young adult cohorts.
The psychological impact of honor cultures and shame societies on the general population has not been examined through a diagnostic lens. Atimiaphobia is a newly recognized psychological condition characterized by an intense fear of losing honor or being labeled shameless, deeply rooted in honor cultures and shame societies. To assess this construct, the Atimiaphobia Scale (AtiPhoS) was developed and rigorously validated. The study was conducted in a series of four phases involving 1232 participants (Mage = 27 years; women = 48.9%). The validation of the AtiPhoS involved exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses along with convergent and predictive validity. The AtiPhoS, comprising 15 items (English) and four subscales (fear of being labeled shameless, fear of violating social norms, fear of public judgement, fear of losing self-respect and honor) demonstrated excellent reliability (α = 0.824; ICC = 0.989). The model fit indices, such as CFI (0.933), TLI (0.916), RMSEA (0.065), and SRMSR (0.044), showed strong validity. Convergent validity was demonstrated by the scale's significantly positive correlation with the Experience of Shame Scale (r = 0.377) and the anxiety sub-scale of the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale (r = 0.262). The predictive validity of the AtiPhoS was established through its inverse predictive values for social intelligence (β = -0.229). A significant positive correlation was found between atimiaphobia and age. Women and married individuals exhibited significantly higher levels of atimiaphobia compared with men and unmarried individuals, respectively. The study provides compelling evidence that atimiaphobia is a distinct and measurable phenomenon, contributing to the broader understanding of cultural stressors related to honor and shame.
Identity is a fundamental concept in social psychology; however, its application in conservation education has been limited. This study examines the impact of naturalist identity on biodiversity conservation behaviors, focusing on both direct and indirect pathways mediated by a sense of obligation. Using a mixed-methods approach, we developed and validated a 10-item Naturalist Identity Scale (NIS) using a total of 824 valid responses from naturalists and college students, demonstrating strong psychometric properties and cross-group comparability. Results from 198 naturalists revealed that naturalist identity significantly predicts biodiversity-related actions, with a sense of obligation partially mediating this relationship. Consequently, the study provides a reliable scale for measuring naturalist identity and suggests that a stronger naturalist identity is associated with a higher frequency of biodiversity actions. Our findings emphasize the importance of identity in fostering conservation behaviors and offer practical insights for environmental education strategies.
In competitive sports, formal athletes' proactive behaviors are crucial for their on-stream performance. Recent studies suggest mindfulness training and mental toughness can enhance athletes' performance, but their impact on sustained proactive behaviors remains unclear. Considering the team's psychological climate, our study explores how innovative and inclusive climates moderate the relationship between mindfulness, mental toughness, and proactive behaviors. A cross-sectional survey of 483 formal athletes in China was conducted, employing structural equation modeling to test hypotheses. Results indicate that mindfulness enhances proactive behaviors indirectly through mental toughness. An innovative climate positively moderates the indirect relationship and reverses in direct, while an inclusive climate does not. The study contributes to sports psychology by establishing an integrated model of mindfulness-driven proactive behavior, revealing differentiated moderation paths through mental toughness, and providing practical insights for optimizing team climates to foster proactive behaviors.
