This study evaluated the effects of organic acids (OA), Campylobacter jejuni (CJ) inoculation, and their combination on cecal CJ colonization, intestinal morphology, cecal microbiota, and broiler performance. A 4×2 factorial arrangement in a randomized complete block design was used, with pen location as the blocking factor. A total of 2240 Ross 708 males were allocated into 64 pens (8 replicates/treatment; 35 birds/pen). Pens received one of four water treatments: control (water), intermittent OA-A (2 mL/L; days 0–5, then 1 day/week), continuous OA-A (2 mL/L), or continuous OA-B (2.6 mL/L), where OA-A and OA-B are citric acid-based water acidifiers. Birds were gavaged on day 21 with either phosphate buffered saline or CJ (104 CFU/mL). CJ enumeration was conducted on days 23, 28, 35, and 42. Duodenum, jejunum, and ileum samples were collected on day 42 for villus height, crypt depth, and villus-to-crypt ratio (V:C). Cecal contents were collected for microbiota analysis, and body weights and feed intake were recorded on days 0, 13, 27, and 41. Data were analyzed using ANOVA (GLIMMIX, SAS v9.4) and cecal microbiota data in R. OA supplementation did not reduce cecal CJ colonization (P > 0.05). No interaction effects were found for intestinal morphology, but CJ-inoculated birds had deeper jejunal crypts (P = 0.0018) and reduced ileal villus height and V:C (P = 0.0134 and 0.0003). CJ altered microbiota alpha- and beta-diversity, but no interaction effects were observed. Broilers receiving citric acid-based OA-A had higher body weights than control and OA-B birds on day 41 (P = 0.0029). In conclusion, OA did not reduce CJ colonization or improve gut morphology but improved final body weight.
The objective of the present study was to evaluate the impact of adding hydroponic green forage made from corn and oats on productive variables and gut microbiota in broiler chickens. Two hundred Ross 308 broiler chickens were used. Birds were randomly allocated to four dietary treatments with five replicates per treatment, as follows: (Control), basal diet; (BD + HGMF), basal diet supplemented with hydroponic green corn forage; (BD + HGMOF), basal diet supplemented with hydroponic green corn and oat forage; and (BD + HGOF), basal diet supplemented with hydroponic green oat forage. Treatments that included hydroponic forage were offered fresh, for a period of 4 h, to simulate grazing from 09:00 to 13:00 h, in outdoor pens with 1 h of prior feed restriction. The results show that, at the finishing stage, birds in the control treatment showed greater weight gain with 2.52 kg, showing differences with the treatments that were offered some type of hydroponic forage in the diet (P < 0.05); however, feed consumption did not show differences (P > 0.05) between the control treatment and HGMF with average consumption of 3.81 and 3.40 kg respectively, while birds that were provided some type of hydroponic forage did not show significant differences. Regarding the FCR, carcass yield, and weight of the meat pieces, no differences were found between treatments (P > 0.05). Concerning gut microbiota quantification, hydroponic forage supplementation did not significantly influence fecal total aerobic mesophiles (TAM) and Enterobacteriaceae counts in the different treatments.
This study evaluated the effect of early growth (EG) - shifts of gain from the pubertal phase (g(2)) to the prepubertal phase (g(1)) - and pubertal growth rate (b(2)) on development, feed efficiency, carcass composition, and reproductive performance of broiler breeder females. Two-hundred-eighty-eight Ross 308 pullets were randomly assigned to twelve BW growth trajectories and fed using a precision feeding system from 0 to 60 wk of age. A 3-phase Gompertz model fit to the recommended BW target of Ross 308 breeders was utilized, describing growth in phase 1, 2, and 3 (prepubertal, pubertal, and postpubertal, respectively). To design 12 growth trajectory treatments in a 6 & times; 2 factorial arrangement, six levels of the gain coefficients and two levels of the b(2) coefficient were used. The six continuous EG shifts were in 10% increments: -10%, 0% (Ross 308 standard), 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40%. For each EG treatment, the given gain (kg) as percentage of g(2) was shifted to g(1). The 0% shift treatment used the coefficients g(1) and g(2) that described the breeder recommended target BW. The b(2) factor had two levels: Standard, where b(2) was 100% of the estimated standard pubertal growth rate from the breeder recommended pubertal phase (Standard b(2)); and 50% faster, where b(2) was increased 50 percent (b(2) 150%). Weekly BW and carcass composition were analyzed using three-way ANOVA (b(2), EG, and age as fixed sources of variation). Analysis of covariance was conducted on the remaining dependent variables with b(2) as fixed effect, EG and age as continuous fixed effects. Bird BW followed the target BW trajectories for most of the study duration, as ADFI differed depending on the feed amount required to achieve the respective BW trajectories. Advancing EG increased breast fleshing score and pubic bone space and decreased the number of juvenile primary wing feathers during rearing (P < 0.05). Carcass fat percent increased with advanced EG after 4 wk of age, but this difference was not observed from 20 wk onward. Neither EG nor b(2) significantly affected egg production (P > 0.05). Feed per chick produced decreased with advanced EG only when b(2) was increased (b(2) 150%; P < 0.05). In conclusion, early pullet growth increased mostly muscle and skeletal characteristics, whereas reproduction efficiency was increased by advanced EG only when pubertal growth rate was also increased.
This study aimed to enhance the egg quality of native Iranian chickens through a crossbreeding program using White Leghorn (WL) as the dam line and Marandi (MA) as the parental line to produce crossbred offspring (MA x WL). Various egg quality parameters were assessed during the experiment. Significant differences were observed in egg quality traits between WL and MA, with WL demonstrating superior performance in most traits (except shell percentage and egg shape index) compared to MA (P < 0.05). Notably, the MA x WL exhibited significantly improved performance in most studied traits compared to MA. Negative heterosis was observed for albumen height and Haugh unit, which showed similar values in MA and MA x WL. Furthermore, MA x WL resembled WL more closely than MA in terms of egg dimensions, shell weight, and yolk weight (P < 0.05). Overall, this study suggests that crossbreeding can enhance the egg quality of native chickens by leveraging the expression of relevant WL genes in the crossbreds. Additionally, the adaptability of MA to local environmental conditions may be partially inherited by MA x WL, warranting further investigation in subsequent studies.
A decline in feather coverage in chickens due to the presence of the naked neck (Na) gene may alter sulfur amino acid requirements under high ambient temperatures. The present study aimed to determine the growth performance and carcass traits of naked neck (NaNa; Nana) and normally feathered (nana) genotypes when fed diets supplemented with different levels of methionine under hot environmental conditions. A three-factorial experimental design (3 & times; 3) was used, comprising three genotypes (NaNa, Nana, nana) and three dietary methionine supplementation levels (0.30, 0.35, and 0.40%). A total of 108 male chicks aged 4 weeks (36 birds per genotype) were randomly assigned to three dietary methionine levels in individual cages (12 birds per subgroup). Dietary methionine level had no significant effect on body weight, body weight gain, or feed conversion ratio. However, increasing methionine levels significantly (p <= 0.01) increased breast muscle percentage, dressing percentage, and the relative weight of edible parts. On the other hand, the relative weight of abdominal fat decreased significantly (p <= 0.01) with increasing dietary methionine levels. Additionally, naked neck genotypes (NaNa; Nana) had significantly (p <= 0.01) lower abdominal fat percentages compared to the normally feathered genotype (nana). A significant interaction between genotype and methionine level was detected for relative weight of breast muscles, with a favorable effect of the Na gene observed at higher dietary methionine levels. Introducing the naked neck gene into chicken populations fed diets supplemented with higher levels of methionine is highly recommended under hot environmental conditions.
In this study, we determined the effects of a dietary supplement with phytogenics and photosynthetic bacteria Rhodovulum Sulfidophilum (RS) on the laying performance of hens. A total of 2,664 white leghorn laying hens aged 51 weeks were used. The hens were divided into three groups randomly, including control (basal diet), phytogenic (basal diet with 0.4 % phytogenic supplement), and RS (basal diet with 0.4 % RS supplement) groups. The experiments of 5-week durations revealed that both the phytogenic and RS groups showed significantly increased daily egg production by 4.0 % and 5.6 %, respectively (P < 0.05) as well as exhibited significantly lower egg yolk cholesterol by 9.7 % and 12.3 %, respectively, and lower triglyceride levels by 12.5 % and 12.2 %, respectively (P < 0.05). Therefore, we suggest phytogenics and RS as potential dietary supplements for laying hens.
Commercial ostrich farming continues to develop globally, however, there is a lack of scientific research on ostrich welfare related to husbandry conditions. To assess needed stable size, young ostriches were kept in three groups of 8 animals on 20 m(2) (i.e. 2.5 m(2)/animal), 40 m(2) (i.e. 5 m(2)/animal) and 80 m(2) (i.e. 10 m(2)/animal) of stable space with access to 2500 m(2) of pasture for each group. Feather corticosterone (fCort) as well as blood heterophil/lymphocyte (H/L) ratio, creatine kinase (CK), aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and uric acid (UA) were evaluated at 6, 9, 12 and 15 months of age as indicators of chronic stress. fCort dropped over time in groups in larger stables while fCort of ostriches on 2.5 m(2)/animal remained near starting levels (p = 0.0599). H/L ratio, AST and CK yielded no differences between groups. UA plasma concentrations were significantly higher in the group on 2.5 m(2)/animal (p < 0,01). During a period when birds had to be stabled because of avian influenza restrictions, fCort and H/L ratio showed an upward trend though this was overshadowed by individual differences. Our findings suggest a negative effect on ostriches kept on 2.5 m(2)/animal but no additional benefits for ostriches kept on stables of 10 m(2)/animal over those on 5 m(2)/animal. For further assessment of stable sizes ethological studies are necessary.
Cryopreservation of chicken semen is crucial for poultry breeding and genetic preservation, yet post-thaw fertility remains low. In a randomized design, the effects of an aloe vera-based extender and two thawing protocols (5 degrees C for 30 s vs. 75 degrees C for 5 s followed by 5 degrees C for 20 s) on semen quality and fertilization ability were investigated. Five treatment groups differing in extender type and thawing temperature were tested. Pooled semen from 28 roosters was frozen with a conventional extender containing methyl acetamide and dimethylformamide (CR) or the same extender with 20 % aloe vera extract (AV) and thawed at 5 degrees C (CR-5, AV-5) or 75 degrees C (CR-75, AV-75). Fresh diluted semen served as control. Fertility and hatchability were assessed by artificial insemination of 135 hens and incubation of 2297 eggs. The control group achieved the highest fertility (54.6 %) and hatchability (41.0 %), while aloe vera-treated semen thawed at 75 degrees C showed the lowest values (2.0 % and 1.3 % respectively). Fertility in the CR-75 group (26.7 %) was significantly higher than in the AV-75 group (P < 0.0001). Thawing temperature had no significant effect on fertility, hatchability, or sperm viability (P > 0.050). Aloe vera supplementation significantly reduced total and progressive sperm motility and viability (P < 0.050). These results indicate that Aloe vera at the concentration tested is not a suitable cryoprotectant for rooster semen and may negatively affect both semen quality and reproductive outcomes. Rapid thawing also provided no benefits.
Bioherbal has shown performance benefits in layers and ducks, but its effects on broilers remain unclear. Moreover, the liquid form poses challenges in storage stability and mixing consistency, potentially reducing efficacy. This study evaluates the effects of liquid and microencapsulated bioherbal additives on broiler performance, carcass traits, gut morphology, and microbiota using 320 Lohman MB 202 chicks across eight treatments (0 %, 0.4 %, 0.8 %, 1.2% addition level for each form). Green bioherbal exhibited higher phenolic and flavonoid contents (1.413 f 0.025 mg/mL GAE, 1.084 f 0.349 mg/mL QE) than the yellow variant. At 1.2 %, the liquid form achieved the highest weight gain (1515.7 f 51.84 g/bird) and lowest feed conversion ratio (1.67 f 0.08), with similar results for the microencapsulated form. Carcass analysis showed improved texture and color without significant yield changes. Intestinal morphology was enhanced, especially at 0.8 % liquid bioherbal, with increased villi height and crypt depth. Microbiota profiles revealed more lactic acid bacteria and fewer pathogenic Salmonella sp. and E. coli, with the microencapsulated form offering superior stability. These findings support bioherbal as a sustainable alternative to antibiotics, particularly in microencapsulated form for improving bioavailability and efficacy.
The study assessed the effect of a synbiotic-supplemented diet on the performance, gut health, skeletal health, and fear response of two commercial broiler strains. Three-hundred-day-old Cobb 500 and Ross 308 chicks were randomly allotted to either only a basal diet or a diet supplemented with antibiotic or synbiotic (consisting of fructooligosaccharide, Enterococcus sp., Bifidobacterium sp., Pediococcus sp., and Lactobacillus spp. at 0.5 g/kg of diet). The birds' body weight (BW) and feed intake were measured weekly, and the tonic immobility and latency tests were conducted on days 32 and 35 of age, respectively. The birds were slaughtered on day 35, and the analysis included quantification of duodenum morphometrics and caecal bacteria and evaluation of leg and tibia strength. Diets had a negligible effect (p > 0.05) on bird BW, feed intake, relative internal organs (liver, gizzards, and heart weight), caecal bacterial population, and fear response. The synbiotic did not improve the birds' leg strength, although they had higher tibia weight (p = 0.02) and dry matter (p = 0.008) than antibiotic-supplemented birds. Additionally, synbiotic-supplemented birds had higher villus height and shorter villus width of duodenum compared to the other groups (p < 0.01), and broilers fed only the basal diet (p < 0.05), respectively. The Cobb 500 birds consumed more feed (p = 0.0001) and were heavier (p < 0.0001) than the Ross 308 birds, but no strain differences (p > 0.05) were observed for the tibia strength and caecal bacterial counts. The findings of this study indicate that Cobb 500 birds had a better performance than Ross 308. Although the synbiotic increased the duodenal villi's height and tibia's weight, it did not affect both bird strains' growth performance and leg strength. Therefore, the optimum amount of synbiotic required to enhance the overall performance of broiler chickens warrants further study.
An experiment was designed to determine whether translucent eggshells could negatively affect egg weight loss and incubation results. Internal and external egg quality parameters and microstructural shell differences were assessed. A total of 360 hatching eggs were obtained from a 54-week-old (Hy-Line) laying hen breeding flock. The eggs were divided into two groups: the first group consisted of eggs with translucent shells (TE) and large, numerous clear spots when candled; the second group, the control group (C), consisted of normal eggs without shell defects. The eggs from each group were randomly placed into incubator trays and incubated under standard incubation conditions. Both the eggshell conductivity and the specific eggshell conductivity were significantly higher in eggs with a translucent shell than in the control eggs. The proportion of shell in normal eggs was significantly higher than in TE eggs. TE Eggs had a higher relative weight loss during the first 7 and 18 days of incubation than the control eggs. An analysis of SEM images of translucent and normal eggshells revealed that normal eggs had a more regular formation of the mammillary layers at both the equator and the blunt ends. The percentage of fertilised eggs that hatched in the TE group was significantly lower than in the C group. The hatching window differed significantly between translucent and normal eggs. Chicks from TE eggs hatched earlier than chicks in eggs with a normal eggshell. It was concluded that it might be advisable not to use eggs with large and intense translucent spots for breeding. However, if this type of egg is to be used, excessive moisture loss should be prevented by storing them for a shorter period of time and increasing the relative humidity in the egg storage room and incubators.
This experiment investigated the effects of reducing dietary AME(N) and essential amino acids (EAA) levels by 10 % and up to 30 %, respectively, on growth and slaughter performance of female slow-growing Auburn and fast-growing B.U.T. 6 turkeys. A total of 432 day-old hatchlings were raised at two locations over four four-week phases until 16 weeks of age. Animals were allocated to three feeding strategies with graded EAA levels, featuring strongest reductions during rearing and lower reductions during fattening compared to breeding company recommendations. After rearing indoors in poultry houses (week 8), the turkeys were assigned to two housing systems during fattening (weeks 9-16): poultry indoor housing and mobile housing with free-range access. B.U.T. 6 turkeys exhibited higher final body weights, total concentrate feed intake and consistently lower concentrate feed conversion ratio compared to Auburn turkeys (P <= 0.001). B.U.T. 6 birds had higher proportions of dressing, thighs, and drumsticks (P <= 0.007), whereas breast meat and abdominal fat proportion did not differ (P >= 0.858). When comparing a 30 % with a 20 % EAA reduction during rearing, the stronger reduction decreased final body weights, slaughter weights and dressing percentages (P <= 0.048), but not valuable cuts (P >= 0.077). However, final body weights of both feeding strategies remained high and matched the breeding company's conventional targets, indicating that both turkey strains can sustain growth potential despite AME(N) and EAA restrictions. Housing turkeys with free-range access led to lower final body weights (P < 0.001) with the same total concentrate feed intake (P = 0.831) compared to those kept solely indoors, resulting in a higher feed conversion ratio (P < 0.001). This underscores the challenges associated with environmental conditions, as fattening occurred from October to December. However, free-range access increased breast meat and reduced abdominal fat proportions (P < 0.001), indicating potential benefits.
The deficiency of animal protein in Algerian diets appears to be persistent. The purpose of this study is to determine the effects of incorporating watercress seed oil (WSO) into broiler diets on growth, carcass performance, and specific biochemical parameters. A total of 144 seven-day-old broiler chickens were used and randomly assigned to four groups of 36 birds, with four replicates of nine chicks per group. All birds were reared in deep litter pens until day 42. The four treatment groups were as follows: T0 (control), T1 (basal feed + 0.25 % WSO), T2 (basal feed + 0.50 % WSO), and T3 (basal feed + 0.75 % WSO). Following data processing, both live weight and average daily weight gain decreased significantly in the treated groups during the starter and early growth phases. Average daily weight gain significantly increased in all three treatment groups during the middle and final growth phases. The feed conversion rates of the treated groups decreased significantly during the growth phase. In terms of carcass characteristics, only the T3 group showed a significant reduction in weight and abdominal fat yield. Biochemical parameters revealed a significant decrease in blood glucose, cholesterol, and triglycerides in the treated groups. Finally, WSO supplementation of the broiler diet reduced blood glucose, cholesterol, and triglyceride levels while decreasing abdominal fat. Furthermore, its use in the middle of the growth phase significantly increased weight gain and feed conversion ratio.
Greater rheas are wild ratite birds native to South America that are also raised in commercial farms. Rhea feathers are marketable products, with the white ones having a higher market value since they are easier to dye. Grey feathers are the most common phenotype, also occurring all-white birds. The present mechanism and gene action behind the white plumage phenotype expression are not known. The aim of this study was to verify whether the MC1R gene affects plumage color in rheas. Ten greater rheas (7 white and 3 grey) were studied for the partial region of the MC1R gene by PCR-sequencing. Two synonymous SNPs linked and associated with color were found, with white plumage being dominant. Marker-assisted selection or even phenotypic selection can be easily applied in farms and zoos, as white animals have a higher market value and/or are more attractive for display. The results herein presented are already applicable.
Columba livia domestica, the domesticated version of the rock pigeon, has long accompanied people for various purposes or activities for thousands of years. Nowadays, pigeon breeding is mostly done as a hobby and it is estimated that domestic pigeons have more than 350 breeds throughout the world. Because of the strong artificial selection applied to them, these different breeds exhibit dramatically diverse phenotypic traits. In this study, partial mitochondrial D-loop sequences from 96 different individuals, mainly from western Turkey, were used to uncover genetic diversity, the presence of heteroplasmy, and phylogenetic relationships within and among local and foreign breeds. It was discovered that the partial D-loop regions of domestic pigeon breeds vary in length, ranging from 714 to 1020 bp, due to heteroplasmy in the 61 bp long VNTR found at the end of the D-loop. The number of VNTR repeats changes from 2 to 7, with a T stretch between locations 382 and 391, containing 10 or 9 thymines. Although the D-loop is a promising marker for animal phylogenetic research due to its high polymorphism and high haplotype diversity, and despite the discovery of 30 different D-loop haplotypes, Bayesian phylogenetic analysis was not sufficient to separate different pigeon breeds in Turkey, except for the Modern Oriental Frill breed. In conclusion, mainly due to the heteroplasmy and possible introgression among distinct breeds, it is hard to use the D-loop as an informative marker for getting valid phylogenetic results and to distinguish morphologically distinct Turkish domestic pigeon breeds.
The effects of different dietary crude protein (CP) and valine levels were examined on the live weight, feed conversion ratio (FCR) and protein conversion of roosters as well as on the calculated dietary CO(2 )footprint of broiler production. The trial involved seven treatments formulated on a corn-soybean meal base. Compared to the positive control (PC) diet following the Aviagen's (2014) recommendations, the LPV0 treatment had reduced CP content without valine supplementation. In five additional treatments (LPV1-5), L-valine was supplemented in increasing quantities. The results suggest that reducing the recommended CP content decreases the final weight. While the average weight of LPV0 birds was 9.5 % lower than that of the PC up to day 21, by the end of the 35-day trial, this difference decreased to 7.2 % due to similar weight gains registered in the finishing stage. Roosters fed diets with 1.0/1.0/1.05 g/kg of valine supplementation achieved the same weight gain as the PC birds, even over the full trial (P > 0.05). The FCR was the same across all treatments between days 1 and 35 (P > 0.05). Roosters fed reduced protein, but valine-supplemented diets presented weight gains of 11.2 % less protein on average, while the dietary CO2 footprint of their weight gain was 15.53 % lower than that of the PC group. These data suggest that, from day 22, the dietary CP content in broiler diets can be reduced by up to 11 % without adversely affecting performance, while also improving protein conversion and reducing the dietary CO2 footprint of the final product.
Stress in farming arises from factors such as management, nutrition, environmental conditions, and disease. While synthetic antioxidants are employed to mitigate this stress, they pose potential health risks. Consequently, natural ingredients have been proposed as an effective alternative to prevent oxidative stress. This study investigated the effects of jujube supplementation on growth performance, antioxidant function, meat quality, and carcass characteristics of quails. A total of 128 male quails that were 7 days old were randomly divided into four different treatment groups receiving different jujube levels: J0 (basal diet without jujube), J0.5 (0.5 % jujube), J1 (1.0 % jujube), and J2 (2.0 % jujube). Each group consisted of 4 replicates, with 8 quails in each replicate. After dietary jujube supplementation, the findings demonstrated a significant increase in body weight gain in the J1 group relative to the J0 group during the experimental period from days 15–43 (P = 0.020). In addition, the quails fed jujube showed increased antioxidant stability and decreased malondialdehyde (MDA) production in contrast to the J0 group, with the J2 group showing the most notable effects. Dietary jujube supplementation significantly increased the levels of the antioxidant enzymes catalase (CAT) and glutathione (GPx), peroxidase in quails P = 0.001; P = 0.028). Furthermore, breast meat pH levels decreased in the jujube-supplemented groups (P = 0.006; P = 0.001), and there was no statistically significant difference observed in the quail carcass parameters. These results show that jujube supplementation did not affect growth performance, meat quality, carcass characteristics, and internal organs but could improve serum MDA levels, GPx, and CAT enzyme activity.
The aim of the study was to develop an alternative husbandry system for Japanese quail in a step-by-step procedure. The effects of various floor and nest variants on animal health, eggshell contamination and performance in three housing systems (alternative housing system, AHS; conventional cage system, CCS; floor housing system, FHS) were tested in altogether four laying periods, two of which are described in more detail. The analysis revealed that the plastic grid floor in AHS achieved the poorest results for toe and foot pad hyperkeratosis and foot pad dermatitis. Heavier quail showed more toe pad hyperkeratosis. The claw length was longest in CCS and shortest in FHS. Plumage damage on the head developed sooner and more often in CCS. Heavier quail showed significantly less plumage damage on the head. In general, the plumage condition of quail was better in FHS than in CCS and AHS. For eggshell hygiene, a higher microbial load was found on eggs from FHS, and there were no clear differences between CCS and AHS. The number of second-choice eggs was smallest in CCS and highest in FHS. Particularly the high soiling of eggs that were laid in the litter in FHS stood out. In summary, environmental enrichment had a positive effect on animal health, and FHS achieved the best results. Concerning eggshell hygiene and economic efficiency, the situation is the opposite. A floor material in AHS that suits both foot health and eggshell hygiene was not found, suggesting a need for further research.
Oxidation is one of the important parameters affecting the quality of food products. As a matter of fact, it is known that many factors such as cooking process and conditions, temperature parameters and storage affect the oxidation formation levels. Herein, the effects on protein and lipid oxidation of chicken leg meat samples cooked at different temperatures (160, 180 and 200 degrees C) and times (24, 30 and 36 min) using Airfryer technology were investigated. Chicken leg samples were also analysed for some qualitative properties (pH, water, cooking loss, L & lowast;, a & lowast; and b & lowast;). Both cooking temperature and cooking times affected the qualitative properties. It was found that thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and total carbonyl content values, which are lipid and protein oxidation indicators, increased significantly as the cooking temperature and cooking time of the samples increased (P < 0.01). It was also found that pH, water, crude protein, cooking loss, L & lowast;, a & lowast; and b & lowast; parameters were significantly affected.
