This paper examines the trade networks and business practices of Thomas Carter the younger (c.1720-95). A prosperous stonemason and merchant, he managed a busy London workshop that specialised in chimneypieces, funerary monuments and other forms of architectural sculpture. Despite the quality of his output and the longevity of his career, Carter remains a lesser-known figure in scholarship, his reputation often overshadowed by his peers. Prioritising his role in the Portland stone trade, this paper uses archived correspondence and documentation to explore the logistics, economics and organisation of his business. From selecting, inspecting and shipping the stone blocks to delivering and installing the finished chimneypieces, it considers how Carter co-ordinated his business from a geographical remove, interacting with quarriers, foremen, merchants, labourers, ships' captains, architects and aristocratic clients. It also identifies the successive challenges associated with each stage of the process, from quality fluctuations and delayed shipments to labour disputes and cash-flow crises. Situating Carter within these wider trade, distribution and communication networks, it highlights the versatility of his role and the more precarious aspects of his trade.
In the early 20th century, as reinforced concrete (RC) began transforming architecture practices, weather observation buildings in Korea started incorporating RC flat roofs to create external spaces for observing sunlight and wind. At that time, fully RC structures were not as common as they are today, and RC slabs were often integrated with Western wooden or brick structures. This study examines 106 architectural drawings to trace the structural and material changes in the twenty-four weather observation buildings designed by the Joseon Government-General during the first half of the 20th century. This study explores the relationship between function, structure, and design in the context of RC slab integration. RC was initially used to create roof spaces to meet the functional needs of meteorological observation and gradually expanded to include inter-story slabs. In the aftermath of the Sino-Japanese War, a distinct pattern emerged, combining flat-roofed high-rise structures with pitched-roofed low-rise ones. The degree of integration between these structures varied depending on the materials used for the walls, such as wood or brick. Additionally, the materials for parapets, whether brick or RC, played a crucial role in achieving the necessary height for safety and waterproofing, which in turn influenced the final elevation designs.
The Spaniards' arrival to the territory that today is central Mexico in 1519 triggered rapid transformations in the way of living of the Indigenous peoples, creating a need for new architectural spaces. Logically, these construction projects required a large amount of skilled workforce, and its supply was reliant on the Indigenous communities. This paper will provide insight into how the Indigenous Nahua workers of the early colonial period managed to interweave their own construction techniques with the Spaniards. The argument draws on two historical censuses known as Matricula de Huexotzinco and Padrones de Tlaxcala. These documents offer a rich quantitative and qualitative representation of the Indigenous construction workers of the time. I propose the category Nahua construction specialists to name skilled Indigenous builders and craftsmen. Following a brief overview of the realities of the Nahua cities Huexotzinco and Tlaxcallan in the mid-sixteenth century, a period of shifting politics and identities, the paper pursues three specific aims: to describe and analyse each specialist's abilities, to provide insight into the organisation for work in public projects, and to present a quantitative analysis of the specialist workforce according to the two documents under consideration.
This paper focuses on the design and construction of the church of the Annonciade Convent in Bordeaux, with a particular focus on the ribbed vaults. Constructed over a number of phases from the 16th through to the early 17th century, this complex features several ribbed vaults of different shapes and design. This includes two surbased vaults which are singular examples of this vaulting typology. The main objective of the research was to identify the geometric and constructive criteria used for the ribbed vaults, and how these changed over the course of the construction process. The research process was based on interdisciplinary collaboration between specialists in the fields of Construction History and the History of Architecture. It involved carrying out two parallel lines of investigation: a review of archival documentation relevant to the construction process, and an analysis of physical structure of the church and the vaults as they currently exist. The conclusions are the result of bringing together these two approaches. This paper offers a deeper understanding and appreciation of the singular historical and architectural value of the church of the Annonciade Convent, and the construction process which involved revisions in the original plan over a period of more than 150 years.
Louis Joseph-Vicats' role in the understanding of the hydraulic behaviour of cement is well known. His initial study of 1818 is recognized as an important step in the development of modern concrete and a seminal study in the development of the field of material science. His unique combination of practical engineering and scientific analysis led to the development of the first reliable artificial cement, if not to its immediate industrial application, a development that his son accomplished a generation later. Vicat's approach is a scientific mirror to the empirical development that led to the concrete industry in Britain. He devoted his professional life to the study of cements and followed his first publication with seven further analytical treatises between 1828 and 1857 that dealt with detail questions relating to the application of the material to construction practice. What is less known is his equally strong interest in the statistical documentation of the natural occurrence of hydraulic calcites throughout France. It supplemented his scientific study, forming a practical balance to his scientific bias that enabled the practical development of concrete construction and its use in hydraulic engineering. This balance between science and empiricism enabled the 19th-century pre-eminence of concrete construction in France. It can be traced in a hitherto unrecognized "virtual" treatise reconstructed from Vicat's twelve articles in the Annales des Ponts et Chauss & eacute;es that he published between 1834 and 1846 combined with two rare volumes of statistics 1839 and 1853. Taken together the scientific and statistical aspects of Vicats' life work show how he combined the analytical and empirical approaches to material study, and it provides a more complete picture of his role in the development of modern material science.
This paper describes the birth, rise, and fall of a movement that took the United States by storm during the 1900s and 1910s: the dream of mass-producing housing out of concrete. Thomas Edison played a key role in spreading this dream. Yet an overarching historical account will contextualise and relativise his well-known contribution amongst that of other businesspeople and designers including Grosvenor Atterbury, John Conzelman, Frank Lambie, Milton Dana Morrill, Irving Gill, and Frank Lloyd Wright. They belonged to a vocal and active faction ofAmericans who, around 1910, proselytised a common message in favour of serial concrete housing despite disagreeing on which building methods to use. World War I initially offered a major boost to their cause, but then turned into a missed opportunity that arguably proved fatal. However, while the U.S. concrete-house movement undoubtedly trafficked in hyperbole and overconfident prophecies, evidence in this paper will counter the misperception that few concrete dwellings ever saw the light of day there. The long-lasting effects of this movement transcended its premature end, notably by promulgating ideas about concrete and modern housing that would later become common currency around the world.
The chapel of Junteron in Murcia cathedral is covered with a horizontal-axis annular vault. Its design is attributed to Jacopo Torni, a Florentine artist. The complex shape of the vault and its voussoirs justified its inclusion as an archetype in the sixteenth-century stonecutting manuscript of Alonso de Vandelvira. The article analyses Vandelvira's proposed method of execution, showing that, applying geometrical concepts rigorously, his procedure is inaccurate. It explains that Vandelvira transfers to this constructive type procedures that are appropriate for other cases. The authors propose a similar geometrical approach to the dressing procedure, correcting the shortcomings of Vandelvira, to get a correct shape for each of the voussoirs. This strategy has been implemented and tested in practice with the help of the Compagnons du Devoir association. The limits of the relevance of obtaining a precise form are discussed here. The article will analyse two simplified carving strategies that may have been used in the Junteron vault. First, the non-rigorous execution of Vandelvira's instructions, relying on the thickness of the joints and the abundance of decoration. Second, the use of forms like those used in the Italian mazzocchi, that is, rings used as a head garment, a subject for perspective exercises.
This paper uses the original patent specifications held at the British Library and the published registers of patents compiled by Bennet Woodcroft to produce a survey of patents relating to water supply pipes in England and Wales for the period 1617-1852 (the period covered by the registers). It does not include Scotland or Ireland. The paper explores what the patents can tell us about the use of timber, clay, stone, non-ferrous (lead, copper, and brass), and ferrous metal (cast iron and wrought iron) pipe manufacture, in this period. The period 1617-1852 was a time of huge changes in water supply. The most significant change in water distribution was a move away from traditional materials such as timber and clay to cast iron for large supply pipes. The paper also explores the experiments surrounding the use of stone pipes in this period and the first appearances of other non-ferrous metals as alternatives to lead for internal pipework. It also comments on the general uses and limitations on the use of patents for exploring the development of building technology in this period.
In the late 1950s, the Building Research Station (BRS) started construction on a new set of physics laboratories at its premises atGarston. The laboratories were to have cutting edge facilities for acoustic research and included a silent test chamber, also known as an 'anechoic chamber' or 'free field room'. The BRS anechoic chamber was one of the largest in Europe at that time, and its scale posed a number of constructional challenges. Not least amongst these was balancing the stringent acoustic requirements to maintain an echo-less environment with the structural capacity of absorptive acoustic materials. Nothing could be introduced into the chamber that had the undue potential to reflect sound. Even the floor was a light, acoustically transparent wire mesh that hovered above a four-foot sea of polyurethane foam wedges. This particular chamber constituted a significant benchmark in construction history and laboratory design. Ultimately, meeting the challenges of scale increased its adaptability and opened up the potential of anechoic chambers to a wider remit for applied research particularly in acoustic prediction and music and media technology. Its scale and the careful balance that was struck between structure, materiality and thepreservation of a precise environmental condition enabled the first recording of an orchestra in an anechoic chamber. The tapes and fragments of music which were captured have been used for decades since in various acoustic modelling programmes and the subsequent design of numerous concert halls. This paper explores the context and implications of the design and construction of the BRS Chamber and the manner in which it was adapted to accommodate an orchestra. It situates the BRS Chamber within a matrix of international collaboration and knowledge-sharing in building science that began to emerge in the years surrounding World War Two
Are temple building sites representative of Greek construction habits? More than architectural characteristics, this article will consider the administrative, social, and practical aspects of setting up a construction site in a place of worship by referring to inscriptions of various kinds, notably the 525 or so accounts from Delphi, Epidauros, and Delos (5th-2nd century BC). By comparing these construction projects with others associated with civic buildings, we can see that the same procedure was adopted for both types of architectural projects. This is hardly surprising since the affairs of the gods were essentially managed by men chosen by the city. The funding arrangements were also similar, except that they primarily mobilised sacred funds rather than public ones. The characteristics of the workforces also seem to have been the same in both cases. The work practices of craftsmen do not seem to be influenced by their piety. From a material perspective, however, sponsors and workers needed to organise the space and timing of the building work taking into account how it would encroach upon the sanctuary, any particularly sacred areas, and the ritual calendar.
Following a devastating fire in October 1834, fire safety became a central concern during the reconstruction of the Palace of Westminster. Although it was not considered at the stage of the architectural competition, between 1836 and 1860 the architect Charles Barry oversaw the development of a scheme for fire protection. This paper presents a detailed examination of the evolution of this scheme. The first part shows that Barry's office pursued a passive approach that combined the use offire-resistant materials with structural compartmentation. This approach had implications for the cost and design of the structural fabric and also affected David Boswell Reid's design for the ventilation system. A study of the final scheme, which is the subject of the second part, illustrates that Barry, aware of the limitations of the structural measures, including the risk of ducts breaching compartmentation, also considered operational aspects. These became an integral part of facilities management procedures that had been implemented under Barry's supervision. The third part explores the history of the building in use from 1852 to 1942. Over this period the original principles underwent appraisals, involving the Metropolitan Police, Ministry of Works and London Fire Brigade. They remained largely unchallenged until 1941, when the destruction of the House of Commons by incendiary bombs, led to a fundamental loss of trust in these historic principles and the adoption of first modern interventions.
While there are a number of comprehensive accounts of the history of the Thames Tunnel in print, this paper offers a more detailed exploration of the novel role played by Roman Cement in building the tunnel-though an outline of the project's progress provides a necessary background. Indeed, it was said at the time that "The tunnel would not have been built if this, or a similar quality of cement had not been accessible".1 Used in prodigious quantities to bed over 7.5 million bricks, Roman cement's role in the tunnel's construction was a departure from its early uses in waterproofing, rendering and decorative moulding. This paper considers the necessary testing that permitted cement's use in the tunnel and thereby established its credentials. The Thames Tunnel was a high-profile project by a celebrated engineer and so the choice of unfamiliar materials provided not only the pretext for thorough investigation into its properties, but the favourable results generated publicity that helped consolidate the market for Roman cement in preference to lime in appropriate circumstances. The tunnel was opened to traffic in 1843, just as improved Portland cements developed by William Aspdin and Isaac Johnson were coming onto the market, and so the project coincided with the peak years of Roman cement production. While acknowledging its success in the wider market, the paper dismisses Aspdin's oft-quoted claim that Portland cement was used to repair breaches to the tunnel.
Space frame structures are one of the innovations in civil engineering during high modernity. Since the middle of the twentieth century, with the emergence of various space frame systems of standardised rods and nodes, steel space frame structures have been widely used. Despite the frequent use in the post-war period, especially for roof structures, historical space frame systems and structures developed and built in East and West Germany have received little attention as construction heritage. This paper therefore highlights the important role of space frame structures, particularly the characteristic plane double-layer grids, in German construction history and their impact on the history of architecture, mainly determined by engineering innovations and the development of calculation methods. Emphasis is placed on the development of modular space frame systems in divided Germany and their application under different economic and politico-economic conditions, as well as on the advances in the calculation methods for these structures, along with an automated design process. These achievements were decisive for the wide and universal application of space frame structures in both German states and all over the world.
Investigation of the unusual number of lines and full-scale architectural drawings incised into the fabric of the cathedral of Narbonne (begun 1272) adds significantly to our understanding of medieval design and construction techniques. Some incised lines were tied to the cutting of stone and were the work of masons; others were likely drawn by the master for use by the masons when placing stone. The full-scale drawings include pier sections, moulding profiles, a flying buttress, and an enigmatic diagram, all of which are connected to the building and appear to have been used by the master to work out design problems, and perhaps by masons in making templates or as blueprints during construction. Analysis of the drawings suggests how they were laid out, reveals a system of measurements tied to a local unit of measure called a canne and indicates ways these measurements were used in the design of individual drawings.
During the Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945), the Qi River Project ((sic)(sic)(sic)(sic))was implemented by the Huai River Commission ((sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)(sic))in the remote mountains of southwest China. It marked the beginning of constructing some of the earliest western-style locks in Sichuan Province. Faced with difficult terrain and tight deadlines, the project's initial designs were repeatedly revised throughout the construction phase. This led to the unexpected development of a unique type of wide-chamber lock ((sic)(sic)(sic)(sic)), wherein the chamber is noticeably wider than the lock gates-a design previously deemed obsolete in western countries. However, it was revived and subsequently became the standard in post-war midwestern China. In the same period, China faced a critical shortage of cement. Heting Wang ((sic)(sic)(sic)), a technician who was studying in India during this time, introduced 'Substitute Cement' ((sic)(sic)(sic))and developed local variants. This innovation was crucial in supporting the construction of numerous locks and mitigating the cement scarcity in China during the war. After the war, this development triggered a nationwide surge in the use of Substitute Cement, which remained a key material until the substantial increase in cement production in China during the 1980s. Therefore, the Qi River Project significantly contributed to the inception and evolution of wide-chamber locks and the adoption of Substitute Cement in China.
The John Laing Photographic Collection of more than 230,000 images documents Laing's work over more than a century operating as a major UK civil engineering and housebuilding business. This paper looks at how the imagery drives a specific and intended presentation of Laing, considering the use of photography in identity creation both for Laing as a corporate body, and as a mechanism to encourage a particular character within its workforce. It does this by looking at the use of photographic images in advertising, branding, internal and external documents. It concludes that it is not possible to identify any unique aspects of Laing's approach to identity creation. The Collection offers an opportunity to consider a significant volume of construction photography and concludes that there is a different aesthetic to architectural photography and that it represents an underutilised resource for historians of the built environment.
This article traces the history ofexperimentation with construction systems, patents and engineering concepts applied to construction in Valparaiso, Chile, after the devastating earthquake and fire of1906. Valparaiso was one of the main ports of the American Pacific between the mid-19th century and the first quarter of the 20th century. The Valparaiso earthquake, together with the San Francisco earthquake of the same year and the Messina earthquake in 1908, represent a turning point for seismology and seismic engineering, a key moment in the transition between construction based on empiricism and construction based on science and engineering knowledge. In the twenty years following the 1906 earthquake, patented building systems designed to resist earthquakes and fire can be categorised under three types: improvement of traditional building systems, precast reinforced concrete elements and the block construction system. After the earthquake, with the knowledge of the advantages of new materials, their availability, and the advances in structural calculation, architects and engineers designed more complex structures which, in combination with traditional systems, comprise strategies of resistance to earthquakes and fires.
An analysts of four industrial complexes of Croatna's captial Zagreb, stuated for decades but without interest in a systematic exc ae nination of their construction characteristics, reveals the path to the modernization of construction and the first appearance of reinforced concrete at the turn of the nineteenth century. With its demands for state-of-the-art structures, spans and materials, the industrial buildings spurred the modernization of construction in an agrarian country in a similarly agrarian Austro-Hungarian Empire. The modest utilitarian architecture, mainly neglected and abandoned today hides early concrete and reinforced concrete patents and the first complete reinforced concrete structures. The protagonists of this process were mainly construction companies and foreign engineers. This paper provides a tentative review of the development of construction in Croatia at the turn of the nineteenth century through a comparative analysis of the first concrete and reinforced concrete use in four representative industrial complexes in the capital and those of previously studied structures in the most developed industrial centre of the tone, Rijeka
Trinity Church, Shanghai was the one most important public buildings in the Shanghai British Expatriate Community. Despite its prominence in historical Shanghai, Trinity Church has hitherto remained largely unexamined and especially in terms of its interesting construction history. Although the existing church is often mentioned as being the only colonial church built by George Gilbert Scott in the Far East, it is, as this paper shows, actually the result of a building process which depended heavily on a local architect, William Kidner. This paper explores the construction history of Trinity Church between 1863 and 1869. It argues that the significance of Trinity Church goes beyond its unique architectural style, it provides unique insights into the construction industry in 19th century Shanghai and British colonial architecture. It reveals the complex and dynamic nature of building production in early-treaty-port-era Shanghai, the problems of communication between British architects and colonial architects in Shanghai, the progress of local building design and construction, the problems inherent in reconciling Western designs with Chinese workmen and local construction systems. This paper seeks to re-examine the historical importance of Trinity Church both in Scott's work but also in the wider international context.
The majority of theatres built in Algeria in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries during the French colonial period are still operational. Together with their architectural richness, lighting design, using artificial light, plays a key role in ensuring their continued functioning. The aim of this work is to reveal the significance of lighting design over time, and to establish how it was taken into consideration and given equal importance to architectural design. The different contexts for the development of artificial lighting are discussed, and the compliance of lighting in the Algerian theatres with the normative values for interior lighting used at the time is evaluated. An examination of their electrification during the first halfofthe twentieth century, by the firm of Cl & eacute;man & ccedil;on, is based on information obtained through the technical archives held atthe Biblioth & egrave;queNationale deFrance (French National Library). These findings allow us to calculate the illumination of the Constantine and Annaba theatres using the lumen method, which is compared to the recommended values. The results show that the surveyed auditoria met the recommended minimum illumination levels, were greater than 40Lux for the Constantine theatre in 1936 and were 70Lux for the Annaba theatre in 1952.
