Asia is a globally important source of grain supply and demand, and its demand for grain is continuing to grow. Ensuring that Asian food producers have access to sufficient quantities and qualities of local and imported grains at affordable prices is a major challenge for many Asian governments. To underpin food security, many Asian countries engage in grain trade. The principal grain grown in Australia is wheat, and the majority of Australian wheat is exported to Asia. Two-row spring-type barley is another main grain produced in Australia and is also sold principally in Asia. China is the single most important export market for Australian malting barley. Unfortunately, in May 2020 China announced the introduction of an effective 80% tariff on all Australian barley imported into China, which has halted the barley trade between Australia and China. Australian malting barley is flowing to other Asian markets but will need to enter large feed barley markets such as Saudi Arabia to remain sustainable. Because farmers will receive lower prices for feed barley, the future of barley production in Australia is uncertain, as barley farmers are likely to switch to other more profitable crops, such as wheat and canola. Asia is a globally important source of grain supply and demand, and its demand for grain continues to grow for two key reasons. First, the region’s population continues to increase. Second, Asia’s per capita wealth continues to rise, causing an increase in direct and indirect consumption of grains. Few Asian countries export much grain (Fig. 1). The exceptions are Thailand and Vietnam, which are major exporters of rice. Most Asian countries need to satisfy their domestic demand for grain via local production and some combination of a drawdown of local stocks and importation of grain (8). China is unique in producing huge volumes of grains (corn, rice, wheat, and soybeans), while also maintaining large stocks of several grains: wheat and corn and, to a lesser extent, soybeans. China also imports large volumes of feed grains, principally soybeans and some coarse grains (corn and barley). Most other Asian countries produce relatively small volumes of grain, apart from rice and corn, maintain modest reserves of grain, and principally rely on grain imports, especially feed grains. As Asians become wealthier, their indirect consumption of grains is increasing as their diets contain more meat and dairy products (1,7), the production of which often depends on local and imported feed grains. In addition, direct consumption of grains is increasing as millions are lifted out of poverty and inadequate nutrition, while others are shifting away from almost exclusively rice-centric diets to diets that include wheatbased noodles, breads, and biscuits (cookies) and cakes (2,4) or who drink malt-based beers and, therefore, indirectly consume barley (5). Ensuring that Asian food producers have access to sufficient quantities and qualities of local and imported grains at affordable prices is a major challenge for many Asian governments. Food security and affordability are principal concerns for many governments, as food purchases remain a major proportion of household expenditures. For example, in Laos and Vietnam close to half of all household expenditures are allocated to the purchase of food (6). To underpin food security, many Asian countries engage in grain trade. Hence, grain trade policies are important economic and political issues. Yet, these trade policies are often politically sensitive issues as they need to be formed against the backdrop of rural populations in Asia, which are an important proportion of each country’s population, and Asian grain farmers who are often small-scale operators in need of government support. An additional overlay for China is the use of its market size to further its geopolitical role. Australia’s Grain Trade Landscape in Asia The principal grain grown in Australia is wheat. Australia produces, on average, about 25 Mt of wheat each year, accounting for 3.5% of annual global production. The Australian wheat industry is export oriented, shipping about 65–75% of the nation’s total production to more than 50 countries. However, the majority of Australian wheat is exported to Asia, which accounts for 70–80% of Australia’s exports. The main Asian export markets for Australian wheat are Indonesia, the Philippines, Vietnam, China, South Korea, and Japan (Table I). Over much of the last decade Indonesia was a dominant export market for Australian wheat (3). For example, in 2017, 5.2 Mt of wheat was exported from Australia to Indonesia. However, in 2018, as drought gripped eastern Australia, only 2.2 Mt was exported to Indonesia, and as the drought continued into 2019, even less wheat was exported to Indonesia. Australia’s share of the Indonesian wheat market fell from 70% to less than 10%. As Australian wheat became scarcer and more expensive, Indonesian flour millers turned to other cheaper sources, such as Ukraine and Argentina. Australian wheat that ordinarily would have shipped to Indonesia instead fueled Australia’s domestic food and feed wheat markets, such that Australia’s market share in Indonesia collapsed. From July 2019 to January 2020, Australia’s market share of wheat imports in Indonesia was only 8%. Indonesian flour millers and noodle manufacturers learned how to produce instant noodles with higher proportions of wheat from cheaper sources, thereby reducing their dependence on Australian wheat. Russia and Ukraine are now major exporters to Indonesia, which is the world’s second largest importer of wheat. The Changing Trade Landscape in Asian Grain Markets: An Australian Perspective Ross Kingwell1 University of Western Australia and Australian Export Grains Innovation Centre, Perth, WA, Australia 1 E-mail: ross.kingwell@aegic.org.au https://doi.org/10.1094/CFW-65-5-0051 © 2020 Cereals & Grains Association CEREAL FOODS WORLD, SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER 2020, VOL. 65, NO. 5 / DOI: https://doi.org/10.1094/CFW-65-5-0051 CEREAL FOODS WORLD, SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER 2020, VOL. 65, NO. 5 / DOI: https://doi.org/10.1094/CFW-65-5-0051 The other main grain produced in Australia that also is principally sold in Asia is two-row spring-type barley. Australia’s annual average production of barley is about 7.5 Mt. Australia produces around 2.5 Mt of malting barley and 4.5 Mt of feed barley. Globally, Australia is a major exporter of barley, representing more than 40% of the world’s malting barley trade and 20% of the feed barley trade. China is the single most important export market for Australian barley. From 2014 to 2017 China imported an average of 4.3 Mt per annum from Australia, or around 70% of all Australian barley exports. A minor grain exported to Asia from Australia is oats. About 20% of Australia’s annual production (~1.5 Mt) of oats is exported to international markets, principally China and Japan. In Asia there is increasing consumer interest in the beneficial health properties of oats and its food products, such as oat noodles, oat milk, and oat rice. Australia’s Asian Trade Agreements The following are Australia’s free trade agreements with Asian countries (listed with the entry-into-force date): • Singapore-Australia (SAFTA) – July 28, 2003 • Thailand-Australia (TAFTA) – January 1, 2005 • ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations)Australia-New Zealand (AANZFTA) – January 1, 2010 for eight countries: Australia, New Zealand, Brunei, Myanmar (Burma), Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Vietnam. For Thailand: March 12, 2010. For Laos: January 1, 2011. For Cambodia: January 4, 2011. For Indonesia: January 10, 2012 • Malaysia-Australia (MAFTA) – January 1, 2013 • Korea-Australia (KAFTA) – December 12, 2014 • Japan-Australia (JAEPA) – January 15, 2015 • China-Australia (ChAFTA) – December 20, 2015 • Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for TransPacific Partnership (CPTPP) – December 30, 2018 • Australia-Hong Kong (A-HKFTA) – January 17, 2020 • Indonesia-Australia Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (IA-CEPA) – February 10, 2020 The most recently ratified agreement, IA-CEPA, has several potential benefits for Australia’s grains industry. In 2018–2019, the total two-way trade in goods and services between Australia and Indonesia was worth A$17.8 billion, making Indonesia Fig. 1. Export and import of principal grains by Asian countries (average 2017/2018 to 2019/2020). Source: USDA data (8). Note, rice data for Southeast (SE) Asia only includes Indonesia, the Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, and Myanmar (Burma).
There are many forms of contamination that can affect grain quality from the farm through transportation, storage, and processing of grains before they are ready for consumption as food or feed. Of these forms of contamination, biological contamination can be a significant threat to human and animal health when contaminated grain is processed into food or feed. Biological contamination encompasses allergens, mycotoxins, pests, and microbes.
Extrusion processing has been utilized for creating textured substrates for many years. Early extrusion systems relied on simple ingredients and equipment, but the demand for high-quality consumer goods has increased the range of raw materials that can be used, and the complexity of extrusion processes has changed dramatically. Today, there are three primary extrusion-based methods utilized for production of texturized proteins: dry extrusion, wet extrusion, and thermal extrusion. This article examines the basic principles of each process, outlines differences in the processes used in creating a textured substrate, and describes the limitations and challenges of each method. Extrusion is a widely accepted process for manufacturing protein-based foodstuffs that are used in a variety of textured convenience foods. Extrusion has been used for many years to produce texturized proteins, including spun soy protein isolates and extruded meat analogs, while other technologies, such as 3D printing of proteins, have only recently been introduced. Commercial feasibility has supported the development of three extrusion-based methods for production of texturized proteins: dry extrusion, wet extrusion, and thermal extrusion. The development of each technology has been driven by consumer needs and demands for product texture, nutrition, and quality. Extrusion allows a wide range of protein sources to be continuously cooked using a combination of mechanical and thermal energy. The macromolecules in proteinaceous ingredients lose their native, organized structure and form a continuous, viscoelastic mass. As they pass through the extruder barrel and die, they are aligned in the direction of flow. This realignment exposes bonding sites that lead to cross-linking and a reformed, expandable structure (2) that is responsible for the chewy, meatlike texture in plant-based alternatives (Figs. 1 and 2). In addition to texturizing and restructuring plant proteins, the extrusion cooking process performs several other important functions, including • Denaturing protein—Proteins are effectively denatured during the moist, thermal process of extrusion. Denaturation of protein “lowers solubility, renders it digestible while destroying the biological activity of enzymes and toxic proteins” (3). • Deactivating residual heat-labile growth inhibitors— Growth inhibitors are inherent in some vegetable proteins and can exert harmful physiological effects on humans or animals, as revealed by growth and metabolism studies. By deactivating these growth inhibitors, the harmful physiological effects can be dramatically reduced or eliminated altogether. • Controlling raw or bitter flavors—Many undesirable raw or bitter flavors are volatile and are eliminated through the extrusion and decompression of the protein at the extruder die. The use of preconditioning and atmospheric venting devices in the design of an extrusion system also assists in volatilization and removal of off-flavors. • Providing a homogeneous, irreversible, bonded dispersion of all micro-ingredients throughout a protein matrix—Dispersion not only ensures uniformity of all ingredients, such as dyes, throughout the product, but also provides a means whereby minor ingredients can be intimately associated with potential reaction sites, promoting cross-linking or other desirable chemical and physical modifications. Extrusion Techniques for Meat Analogues Brian Plattner Wenger Manufacturing, Sabetha, KS, U.S.A. https://doi.org/10.1094/CFW-65-4-0043 © 2020 Cereals & Grains Association CEREAL FOODS WORLD, JULY-AUGUST 2020, VOL. 65, NO. 4 / DOI: https://doi.org/10.1094/CFW-65-4-0043 Fig. 1. Raw protein globules. Fig. 2. Texturized and aligned protein. • Shaping and sizing of the final extruded product—Shaping and sizing of final products creates textured vegetable protein products that are convenient and available in transportable portions for packaging in retail or institutional marketplaces.
ABSTRACT Rice is grown over much of the world and provides more calories directly to human beings than any other cereal. Rice production is concentrated in Asia (~90% of total world production), with China and India being the largest single national producers and consumers of rice. Because of its critical role in human nutrition, more rice must be produced annually to provide food for a growing population. Worldwide rice yields increased more than threefold between 1960 and 2019. Much of this production is due to greater yield per hectare of land area rather than increasing land area used in rice production. The increase in yield has been facilitated by genetic improvement of rice varieties through breeding for changing production conditions and improved cropping practices. The development of hybrid rice has also allowed large increases in rice productivity to be achieved. The rice plant is harvested as the rough rice grain, or paddy, which contains approximately 20% husk, 10% bran, and 70% milled rice. The unbroken kernel of rice is the main product of the rice paddy that is consumed by humans. These unbroken (or mostly unbroken) kernels, or head rice, are the largest determinant of rice quality and the primary source of value from the crop. The milled rice kernels or heads are primarily composed of starch, which is mostly amylopectin, and a smaller amount of protein. Critical quality components of the milled rice kernel include percent chalk, protein content, amylose content, cooking properties, and gelatinization characteristics. Optimal timing of harvesting the rice paddy allows head rice yields to be optimized. Since rice is dried after harvest to a safe moisture content for storage, drying practices and conditions must also be optimized to achieve optimal head rice yields. Harvest timing, drying conditions, and storage practices are critical to practical productivity improvements in rice production. Rice is milled after storage, and milling factors dramatically influence overall rice quality. Most rice is consumed directly as milled rice, but many important products, including noodles, puffed rice, flour, and beer, also have critical quality requirements. In the last 60 years, critical improvements in breeding, production practices, harvesting, drying, storage, and milling have enabled a continual flow of more, higher quality rice for the growing global population.
Whole grains and their products have existed or been introduced worldwide, but there are still some challenges facing researchers and food manufacturers. This article focuses on the current development status of whole grains and the processing and sensory challenges to increasing whole grain food consumption in China. Whole grain foods have been consumed in China for centuries; however, refined grain products became more popular with advances in grinding technology. In recent years, a decline in people's health has reminded consumers that whole grain foods are excellent alternatives in a healthy diet. The market share of whole grain foods started to increase at a very fast pace in China at the beginning of the 21st century. Processing technology is a key factor influencing the expansion of whole grain products. Due to the darker color and larger particle size of bran and active enzymes in the germ, whole grain foods usually present an undesirable appearance, mouthfeel, and shelf life. Grinding of the entire kernel, sprouting, fermentation, and extrusion techniques have shown great benefits in improving the texture and sensory characteristics of whole grain foods. Because of nutrient loss during processing, a balance between desirable flavor and nutritional value should be considered for future innovations in whole grain processing technology.
Pulses are nutrient-dense food crops that are high in protein. To quantify protein quality, different methods have been developed, including the protein efficiency ratio, which is used in Canada, and the protein digestibility corrected amino acid score, which is used in the United States. When considering pulse proteins, there are inherent limitations that reduce their overall quality. The amino acid composition of pulse crops is not sufficient to meet human nutritional requirements, because they lack sufficient methionine/cysteine and/or tryptophan, and the presence of antinutritive factors reduces protein digestibility and bioavailability. Traditionally, these confounding issues have been overcome through processing, which can increase protein content, alter amino acid composition, and reduce the presence and activity of antinutritive factors. More recently, genetic techniques have been employed as potential solutions for issues of amino acid composition and antinutritive factors. In this overview different protein quality measurements, limitations of pulse proteins, effects of processing on protein quality, and genetic techniques for increasing pulse protein quality are discussed. Pulses are a subgroup of legumes, specifically the dried seeds of beans, lentils, peas, and chickpeas; other legumes include soybeans, peanuts, and nondried peas and beans. Pulses have seen a significant rise in global production over the past few decades. Over the 22 year period from 1996 to 2008 pulse production rose by 24%, from 37.5 to 46.4 million tons (18). Between 2008 and 2017 annual pulse production almost doubled to 75.6 million tons worldwide, with beans, peas, and chickpeas accounting for 37.3 million tons (18). With respect to consumption, developing countries tend to consume greater quantities of pulses than developed nations. In 2007 only 3.8 kg of pulses was consumed per capita in developed countries, while 7.94 kg was consumed per capita in developing nations (1). Similar differences were noted in the growth rate of pulse consumption: 0.4% between 1995 and 2007 in developed countries versus 0.8% in developing countries. These global trends are indicative of the rising prevalence of pulse crops but do not give an accurate indication of their nutritional value or the efficacy of different processing methods.
The May-June 2020 issue of Cereal Foods World explores health and nutrition, focusing on the role of food in maintaining health and assisting in the treatment of a variety of health conditions. The authors offer perspectives on food as medicine and recommendations for inclusion of grains in the diet; overviews on the function and benefits of prebiotics and dietary fiber in the diet; and insights into efforts to breed grains with improved nutrition. Also included are articles discussing the need for harmonization of food health claims and how the vital role of grains in a health-promoting diet can effectively be communicated to consumers.
Intermediate wheatgrass (IWG) breeding with food use as the primary goal has been ongoing for about 30 years. Tremendous improvements in grain yield, shatter resistance, and free-threshing ability have been achieved, coupled with considerable but comparably moderate increases in seed size. Larger seeds have prompted flour refinement evaluations, which has led to pronounced improvements in flour and bread properties. Removal of bran reduces a large portion of the insoluble dietary fiber, which allows for better hydration of protein networks and, consequently, results in better bread quality. Certain dough conditioners (ascorbic acid and wheat gluten preparations) are able to further improve either dough or bread, although none of the dough conditioners tested improve both. IWG breeding has entered a new phase by focusing on genomic prediction to accelerate progress. In addition, pennycress is being developed as a new cash cover crop with the potential to serve as a source of oil and protein for food use. Rapid progress has been made in domesticating pennycress from a wild, nonedible plant species to a food crop producing edible oil. To make the seed meal suitable for food applications further improvements are needed, as is further characterization of flavor and protein functionality, before pennycress can be used as a protein source.
The ancient wheats spelt, emmer, khorasan wheat, and einkorn have been attracting more attention recently as consumer demand for products with health benefits and favorable nutritional compositions has grown. Furthermore, consumers are willing to spend more on regional, organic, and sustainably sourced and manufactured artisanal cereal products. Although the use of ancient wheats presents some challenges due to low yields, a tendency to lodge, and comparatively poor dough workability, it also presents multiple opportunities along the value chain to help safeguard and increase biodiversity and to create a variety of specialty products with excellent nutritional and sensory properties.
Biotechnology makes use of living organisms for the production of sustainable, biobased food, feed, fuel, and materials. Biocatalyst enzymes, used to improve the process or product quality of food, are a key example of how industrial biotechnology can be used to help address climate change and resource scarcity. In the bakery market and along the baking value chain, various biotechnology-inspired solutions have already been implemented to reduce the carbon footprint by reducing food waste and loss, lowering energy consumption, and creating clean(er)-label products. Some challenges still remain, especially in realizing sustainable solutions for growing market trends, like healthier or organic baked products. In 2015, all United Nations members agreed to bring “peace and prosperity for people and planet, now and in the future” (29). This objective was translated into 17 sustainability development goals to be reached by 2030, such as zero hunger, good health and well-being, and responsible consumption and production. To reach these goals, innovation and collaboration are essential. This article demonstrates the potential role of biotechnology to further increase food security and improve health and sustainability in the bakery market. In the global food system, the challenges are abundant, with reducing food loss and waste being one of the most important. Globally, one-third of food is thrown away, lost during storage or transport, or wasted by retailers or consumers. Not only does this lead to a reduction in food availability and security, it also requires additional food production to compensate for the loss (13). In developed countries, most food waste occurs at the end of the value chain (the consumer), while the opposite holds true for the developing world, where the share of losses during production and storage is larger (13). The combined food waste and loss generates 8% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Based on caloric content, cereals make up the largest share of global food loss and waste (13). Biotechnology can offer solutions to reduce food loss and waste along the value chain, from production to consumer. In biotechnology, microorganisms such as bacteria or fungi or biocatalysts like enzymes are used to generate products and processes. Industrial biotechnology can be used to make biobased products in sectors such as food, feed, and fuels. In doing so, it uses renewable raw materials, making it one of the most innovative approaches to developing a circular, biobased economy. Many biotechnology-inspired solutions, such as enzymes, have already been developed to minimize food losses using low-carbon emission technologies. In addition to the functional benefits enzymes can provide, the same technologies are applied in the development of new products for growing markets, like organic and healthier bakery products. An overview of the general benefits is provided in Figure 1. These benefits are listed Table I together with the problems they can be used to solve and potential feasible biotechnology-inspired solutions. Each of these topics will be discussed in more detail, with a focus on if and how each of these trends affects sustainability along the value chain. Reducing Food Loss and Waste Bread is a staple food for a large portion of the world’s population. Although the carbon footprint for bread production is relatively low (0.7 kg CO2/kg bread, from seed to retail [5]), it does result in high waste. About 10% or more of bread is thrown away by retailers or consumers (5). Waste prevention in the case of bread, thus, would strongly impact the overall life-cycle carbon emission of this food product in a positive way (5,11). The main causes for bread waste are staling and microbial spoilage (15). Bread staling involves a range of physicochemical processes that negatively impact the texture of bread during storage, reducing its appeal to consumers. During staling, the bread crumb becomes firm and dry, whereas the crust turns tough and leathery. Starch recrystallization is commonly deBiotechnology-Inspired Solutions to Further Increase Sustainability and Healthiness in the Bakery Market Joke A. Putseys1 DSM Food Specialties/DSM Biotechnology Center, Delft, The Netherlands 1 DSM Food Specialties/DSM Biotechnology Center, Alexander Fleminglaan 1, 2613 AX Delft, The Netherlands. Tel: +31152793841; LinkedIn: https://be.linkedin.com/in/joke-putseys-30639327; E-mail: joke.putseys@dsm.com https://doi.org/10.1094/CFW-65-6-0064 © 2020 Cereals & Grains Association CEREAL FOODS WORLD, NOVEMBER-DECEMBER 2020, VOL. 65, NO. 6 / DOI: https://doi.org/10.1094/CFW-65-6-0064 Fig. 1. Overview of the various ways biotechnology can offer sustainable solutions in the bakery market. scribed as the major determinant of the staling process (8). One of the most effective ways to stop this process (and thus prevent staling as a source of food waste) is through the addition of a maltogenic a-amylase enzyme (9). The first generation of maltogenic amylases were aimed mainly at crumb softness. More recent generations go a few steps further and keep the overall freshness of the bread (which goes beyond softness to include moistness and flexibility) as stable as possible over a longer storage period. More in-depth information on the staling process and the impact of this type of enzyme can be found elsewhere (8,22). Another way to minimize bread waste by retailers (or consumers) is by interrupting the baking process to produce a freshly baked product only when it is needed. Frozen dough or parbaked (partially baked) bread are examples of such adaptations to the breadmaking process. Freezing dough comes with additional challenges regarding flour quality and yeast viability (23). Therefore, the market for parbaked breads is growing quickly. Because more and more bread is sold at retail, such as in supermarkets, parbaking offers an especially valuable alternative. The parbaking process involves two baking steps. The first baking step takes place immediately after mixing and fermentation and lasts for about 65% of the baking phase, reaching an internal crumb temperature of more than 90°C. This suffices to set the crumb without forming a crisp crust (14,23). The bread is then intermittently stored, most often in the freezer, until the final bake-off stage. For shorter periods of time, parbaked breads can also be stored at room temperature or in a refrigerator. The final baking phase takes place at the point of need, for example in a retail store when the bread supply is running low. This second baking phase is shorter, and internal temperatures in the crumb are typically around 70°C. Even though such adaptations of the baking process increase convenience and partly reduce bread waste at retail, they do not necessarily lower the carbon footprint over the bread production life cycle, as they require more storage capacity, increased energy, and extra transport. Only by avoiding food waste completely can these interrupted baking processes become a viable alternative to conventional baking from a sustainability point of view (1). Microbial contamination is, next to staling, a major cause of bread waste and can account for up to 5% of bread waste in Europe. In more tropical regions, the waste attributed to fungal deterioration can be twice as high at around 11% (30). Wheat flour has low water activity and, thus, is microbially safe. As soon as it is mixed with water during the baking process (which typically takes place between 15 and 30°C), however, microorganisms can proliferate. The heating step in the baking process thermally inactivates the vegetative parts of molds that would be present in the dough. Spores or bacteria, however, may not be killed. The microorganisms contaminating baked goods are either present in the flour due to wheat harvesting and milling processes, or, as is usually the case, are unintentionally introduced during processing or packaging of baked goods (15). The most common microorganisms known to spoil wheat-based products are molds belonging to the genera Penicillium, Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Rhizopus (15). Rhizopus is frequently the cause of common bread molds, and Penicillium dominates spoilage molds in temperate regions. Aspergillus grows faster than Penicillium and is also more resistant to higher temperatures and lower water activities. Spoilage caused by bacteria is less common, although thermophilic Bacillus species are known to cause ropiness in bread during storage at room temperature (3). To restrict mold growth, propionic or sorbic acids are often added or formed by bacterial cultures during the breadmaking process, as is the case for some sourdough breads (15). Natamycin is a natural biopreservative compound that is produced through fermentation by the bacterial strain Streptomyces natalensis. Natamycin is effective against a broad range of yeasts and fungi (26). The antimycotic function of natamycin is based on a very special mechanism in its interaction with ergosterol (an important building block in the cell wall of molds and yeasts). Natamycin blocks protein transport activity and prevents spore germination, while remaining on the outside of the cell wall (4). This unique mode of action prevents fungi from developing resistance to natamycin, which is proven by the long track record of natamycin use for cheese ripening applications, in which dosage rates have remained stable for decades. Natamycin can be used to prevent mold growth in and on baked CEREAL FOODS WORLD, NOVEMBER-DECEMBER 2020, VOL. 65, NO. 6 / DOI: https://doi.org/10.1094/CFW-65-6-0064 products by either spraying it on top of baked goods after they come out of the oven or by including it in the dough for nonyeasted bakery products, such as tortillas. Regulatory approvals for these specific baking applications are limited to several countries. Apart from the loss of baked products due to staling or microbial contamination, significant losses
There is a need to develop a more resilient food supply that is both nutritious and sustainable. From an agricultural perspective, there is increasing concern about depletion of the resources required to grow crops and raise animals humanely. At the same time, the food industry must ensure it has resilient supply chains that are economically viable. Additionally, strategies must be devised to encourage consumers, who are increasingly aware and interested in the origins of their food, how it is produced, and how individual food choices may impact the planet and future generations, to follow more sustainable dietary patterns. The objective of this issue of Cereal Foods World on Sustainable Diets is to share insights that will enable the grains industry to prepare for the shifting food landscape and become part of the solution by simultaneously prioritizing nutrition and sustainability and by making grains even more relevant to consumers.
Worldwide the food industry is under pressure to reduce caloric values of sweet bakery products such as cakes. In addition, there is a need to optimize baking processes so that both energy consumption and waste generation can be reduced. Irrespective of the product, understanding fundamental mechanisms behind the changes occurring during processing is key. This article presents tools to study the behavior of cake batters during baking, generating knowledge on batter stabilization mechanisms and foam-to-sponge conversions. Cake batter stability is generally favored by low air bubble velocity, small bubble diameter, and high batter viscosity. Unfortunately, temperature gradients during baking negatively affect each of these variables, resulting in coarser cake structure. Changes in these physicochemical variables were studied using dynamic viscosity and rheological techniques. Foam-to-sponge conversion is a key stage in which the transformation of liquid cake batter (foam) into the solid and aerated cake structure (sponge) takes place. Substantial viscosity changes occur during baking that are highly affected by ingredients such as flour type and sugar content. These factors were studied using various imaging techniques, such as photography and dynamic or static computerized tomography (CT) scanning. By combining physicochemical and imaging techniques, information on fundamental aspects of the system were obtained. Many different varieties of cakes are produced worldwide. Per country, desired product qualities differ, resulting in many different formulations and preparation methods. One traditional type is a pound cake, containing equal quantities by weight of flour, sugar, fat, and egg. This cake is popular for home baking but does not contain enough sugar to provide the long moldfree shelf life required for retail sale. Increasing the sugar level in a pound cake tends to cause structural collapse because of the inability of the flour to support the extra liquid required when sugar levels increase. Heat-treated and chlorinated flours provide solutions to this problem. In Europe, heat-treated flour is used to stabilize the structure when higher sugar and associated liquid levels are required. These cakes are known as highratio cakes because sugar is incorporated at a higher level than flour. Alternatively, there are sponge cakes, which do not contain added fats, and angel cakes, which are made with egg whites rather than whole eggs (4). These are just a small selection of the many cake types produced worldwide. While bread is a basic product that people consume on a daily basis, cake is an indulgent product that should be eaten in lower quantities. Despite its indulgent character, however, British consumers purchase on average 107 g of cakes and pastries per week (Weekly UK Household Consumption of Cakes, Buns, and Pastries, 2018/2109, available online at www.statista.com/ statistics/698176/weekly-uk-household-consumption-of-cakesbuns-and-pastries, accessed 6-02-2020, 2020). As a result, cake products are under pressure within the United Kingdom with respect to sugar reduction to reduce the caloric intake of U.K. consumers. In addition, the whole food supply chain faces increasing pressures as consumers and governments ask for reduced energy consumption and waste generation, while using sustainably sourced ingredients that preferably have a clean label. The desire for “free-from” products is creating additional challenges. Irrespective of the type of cake product, obtaining a fundamental understanding of the changes that occur during the baking process is key to creating an optimal product. During the cake baking process, all cake batters go through a “foam-to-sponge” conversion (7). A thermodynamically unstable foam-like cake batter converts itself to a solid and thermodynamically stable cake foam (1). This stable structure can be stored for a period of time and consumed at a later date. In this article, we outline the basic structural changes that take place during cake baking and demonstrate tools that can be used to increase our understanding of the changes and the effects of ingredients on these changes. The research tools described can be extrapolated to other food products and assist in development of more sustainable, yet indulgent, products.
Cereals and pulses make important contributions to carbohydrate and protein intakes. Data collected by the International Food Information Council (IFIC) show consumers reported eating fewer carbohydrates during the last decade, yet consumers consistently rank fiber and whole grains as two of the most healthful foods or nutrients to eat. IFIC data also show more favorable opinions among consumers about plant sources of protein compared with animal sources, but there is a recognition that both protein sources can be included in eating patterns that are healthy and environmentally sustainable. In addition, Americans are choosing a variety of eating styles for reasons that include personal and planetary health. Environmentally sustainable foods are viewed by many consumers as beneficial to human health, and with concerns about climate change growing, there is interest in more environmentally friendly food options. However, it is difficult for consumers to know whether a food choice is environmentally sustainable. Therefore, understanding the evolving food perceptions and values of the American consumer, particularly with regard to plant foods, is vital to communicating credible information about the impact of food choices on personal and planetary health.
The interplay between environmental sustainability and reduced risk of chronic disease with dietary choices is often underpinned by the source of protein within a given dietary pattern. This review discusses opportunities to use pulses to increase the proportion of plant protein in manufactured foods to promote dietary patterns that simultaneously promote nutritional adequacy and environmental sustainability. Although consumption of pulses remains relatively low in Canada and the United States, there is a profound opportunity to use pulses to incorporate high levels of plant protein into dietary patterns and, when combined with cereals, provide a sufficient quantity of all of the indispensable amino acids. Increasing the demand for pulses as a food and food ingredient has the potential to expand their production in North America and lower the environmental impacts of modern agriculture. Sourcing cereals from sustainable cropping systems that incorporate pulses can also facilitate higher yields, enhance soil organic carbon, soil biomass, and nitrogen and water use efficiencies and permit the adoption of environmentally conscientious technologies such as zero tillage. The use of pulses in combination with cereal grains could assist the food industry with providing staple foods and food innovations that align with global health and environmental targets.
For Idaho wheat producers, sustainable agriculture includes conservation of natural habitat, rehabilitation of soils, protection of streams and waterways, and increasing wildlife populations. It means adopting management practices that prevent flooding, air pollution, erosion of topsoils, and the loss of soil fertility. At the same time, these practices must be achieved in ways that sustain the profitability of farm operations. Three Idaho wheat producers share their stories of how they have tackled these challenges on their farms and in their communities as they address field burning, profitable cover cropping, and aquifer recharge.
On May 30, 2020, SpaceX launched its first Falcon 9 rocket crewed mission and, with it, a new era of spaceflight in which low-Earth orbit is commercialized and private vehicles can now ferry people to and from space. According to SpaceX, this is a first step toward reaching the planet Mars and settling the first human colony. Although detailed technical elements are being investigated to reach this goal, the challenges of food supply and production have been left mainly unspoken. With a travel time of approximately 7-9 months, a minimum required stay of 2 years, and a high payload cost, it will be impossible to ship all nutrition from Earth to Mars. To tackle this challenge, Puratos, together with different partners, has launched SpaceBakery, a research project on how to feed the first Martian colonists.
Plant proteins are gaining popularity as an animal-free alternative for food and beverage formulations. Proteins from pea, wheat, corn, and rice are the most commonly used proteins derived from cereals and pulses. Consumers’ desire to incorporate more protein from plant foods in their diets is driven by increasing awareness and perceptions around health, animal welfare, and sustainability. Use of proteins from grains as functional ingredients in food and beverage formulations by industry stakeholders continues to trend upward. While grains represent an efficient source of plant protein ingredients, their incorporation into innovative and reformulated foods is often required at levels that will resonate with consumers or align with initiatives that meaningfully enhance the health and sustainability profile of a food product. Higher incorporation rates of cereal-based proteins in some platforms can be challenging because of unfamiliarity with and lack of information on their functional and hedonic properties in some food matrices. However, several innovative strategies have been developed to mitigate off-flavors and enhance functionality, particularly when grain proteins are used to substitute for animal proteins in animal-free products. This review discusses novel technologies and methods that have been used to enhance the quality of foods that incorporate proteins from grains and expedite innovation across food platforms. Research in this space continues to elucidate the functionality of grain proteins for developing healthy and tasty protein-rich foods. Introduction to Grain Proteins Plant protein markets are expected to experience a compounded annual growth rate of 8.1% from 2019 to 2025, with North America holding the largest share of the market (35). Interest in cereal and pulse proteins is largely driven by consumers’ interest in health and well-being, as well as concerns over animal welfare and sustainability. From a population perspective, policy makers and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have highlighted the need for increased reliance on plant proteins to sustain a growing population while preserving the environment and slowing climate change (3,61). As potential sources of plant proteins, grains hold the largest share of the plant protein market. Proteins derived from cereals (wheat, rice, and corn) and legumes (soy and pea) (35) continue to be popular ingredients for the development of high-quality, high-protein consumer-relevant foods (11,22,26). Nevertheless, incorporation of grains as a significant source of protein can present challenges during various stages of food development and can negatively affect the quality of food products, particularly when used as an alternative to animal proteins or in animal-free products (41,51). This review highlights prominent challenges experienced when developing foods with high levels of protein from grains at various stages of food development. Technological advances and strategies that have been used to address hedonic and functional issues often experienced when developing foods with grain proteins are also discussed. Extraction of Grain Proteins To use grain ingredients as sources of plant proteins, the proteins from raw ingredients are often extracted to provide a more concentrated product. Wet-extraction and dry-fractionation are both employed for the isolation of proteins from cereals and pulses. Industrial extraction of grains to attain isolate levels of protein typically utilizes wet-extraction methods. As illustrated in Figure 1, wet-extraction starts with subjecting finely milled (and defatted, dehulled and/or debranned, depending on the grain) flour to alkaline or acidic conditions to solubilize proteins (1). After centrifugation to remove insoluble material (e.g., starch and fiber), the solubilized proteins may be concentrated by isoelectric precipitation, washed, and centrifuged again to remove soluble material (e.g., sugars, soluble fibers, and fats). Proteins are then neutralized and dried to obtain protein isolates with high purity (90%) (38,54). However, the use of chemical solvents and thermal treatments in this process may affect protein functionality by altering the structure (24,64). In addition, this process requires high amounts of water and energy and generates high levels of waste products, which can negatively affect the environmental footprint of the ingredient and final food product (14,44). To overcome both functional and environmental drawbacks, several innovative preand postprocessing techniques have been developed (Table I). Characteristics of Grain Proteins Due to their high prevalence of consumption in the daily human diet cereals are valuable sources of proteins despite their low quality and digestibility. Gluten, zein, and rice proteins are the most commonly used proteins in food and beverage formulations because of their techno-functional properties. Gluten has a high concentration of sulfur-containing amino acids and plays an important role in the water absorption capacity, cohesiveness, viscosity, and elasticity of doughs (37). However, for consumers who are genetically predisposed, gluten is related to a wide spectrum of diseases, such as celiac disease and gluten sensitivity (49). Rice proteins contain all of the essential amino acids, with high amounts of cysteine and methionine, although their native forms have low solubility and emulsifying properties (18). Rice proteins are hypoallergenic and rich in bioactive peptides (5). Zein is a storage protein derived from corn, and although it is rich in sulfur-containing amino acids, it lacks sufficient amounts of tryptophan and lysine (16). Zein has low water solubility and high capacities in emulsion and foam stability and film forming (9,13,56). Soy protein is the most marketed plant protein isolate and provides a relatively well-balanced amino acid composition along Grain Proteins: Challenges and Solutions in Developing Consumer-Relevant Foods Fatma Boukid1 and Sara Rosene2,3 1 Institute of Agriculture and Food Research and Technology (IRTA), Food Safety Programme, Food Industry Area, Finca Camps i Armet s/n, 17121, Monells, Catalonia, Spain. Tel: +34 972 630052; E-mail: Fatma.Boukid@irta.ca 2 General Mills, 1 General Mills Blvd, Golden Valley, MN, U.S.A. E-mail: Sara.Rosene@genmills.com 3 Corresponding author. https://doi.org/10.1094/CFW-65-6-0062 © 2020 Cereals & Grains Association CEREAL FOODS WORLD, NOVEMBER-DECEMBER 2020, VOL. 65, NO. 6 / DOI: https://doi.org/10.1094/CFW-65-6-0062 CEREAL FOODS WORLD, SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER 2020, VOL. 65, NO. 5 / DOI: https://doi.org/10.1094/CFW-65-6-0062 Fig. 1. Wet-extraction of grain protein (38,54). with bioactive peptides (20). Soy proteins provide high gel-formation capabilities, as well as emulsifying, solvent holding, and film-forming capacities (6,29). Pea protein use is on the rise as a less allergenic alternative to soy protein, offering good emulsification and foaming properties (53). Other grain proteins are also gaining traction, including sweet lupin and fava proteins. Sweet lupin is a low-cost source of proteins with a protein content similar to that of soy, and its derived bioactive peptides are associated with several health-related benefits (e.g., hyperglycemia, hypertension, and cholesterol lowering) (7,8,27,33,39,48). Studies have been carried out to enhance lupin protein functionality (e.g., solubility, emulsification, and foaming activity) through the application of proteolytic enzymes in order to match that of soy (50). Fava is another sustainable and low-cost source of protein that is particularly rich in lysine and threonine and has high protein digestibility (42). Enriching Foods with Grain Proteins: Opportunities
Pulses are a versatile group of nutrient-dense leguminous seeds. Alter-natives to animal protein are required to meet the protein demands of a continuously growing human population. While pulses boast a protein content that is double that of cereal grains, their digestibility is lower than that of animal proteins, and they tend to be limiting in either sulfur amino acids (AA) or tryptophan. Additionally, pulses contain antinutritional factors (ANFs [e.g., phytate]) that impact the absorption of nutrients; therefore, pulses cannot be consumed in their native state and must be processed before consumption. Common processing methods can include, but are not limited to, dehulling, milling, soaking, and cooking (e.g., boiling and roasting). Many processing methods and conditions can improve protein content and digestibility, the indispensable AA content of pulses, and reduce or eliminate ANFs. However, it appears that processing conditions and pulse type can affect the degree to which processing modifies protein and AA contents, digestibility, and, ultimately, protein quality. Thus, depending on the food application, specific processing methods may be more beneficial compared with others and should be considered independent of the pulse chosen for the formulation of foods and feeds.
In this article, the tools needed for applied near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy in field analysis of crops are discussed. An overview of the hardware and mathematical modeling needed for the realization of such instruments is provided, and, as an example, the performance of a hand-held analyzer (GrainSense) with common wheat is described.
The resiliency of cereal grain food systems is threatened by the agricultural degradation of natural resources. Addressing this global challenge will require us to rethink the ways in which grains are produced. An emerging farmer-led movement known as regenerative agriculture may provide a pathway to reverse the degradation of agroecosystems, with the potential to enhance food system resilience. Regenerative agriculture reimagines conventional agriculture around a holistic set of nature-based principles to restore soil health, biodiversity, and farm economics. Although a multitude of complex barriers exist for farmers to transition to regenerative systems, companies in the food and agricultural sector are beginning to develop initiatives that can support the regenerative agricultural movement. By redefining their own approaches to sustainability, these companies are charting new paths to accelerate farmer adoption of regenerative agriculture that improves socioeconomic and environmental resiliency throughout food systems.
