This paper argues that modern science is undergoing a fundamental shift from direct observation to inference-based reconstruction of inaccessible systems. Using the Event Horizon Telescope’s imaging of a black hole as a paradigm, it highlights how knowledge increasingly emerges from integrating fragmented, indirect signals within computational and theoretical frameworks. Extending this perspective to geoscience, the author proposes a global “Earth Telescope” – a distributed, multi-sensor system capable of reconstructing the dynamic, four-dimensional structure of the Earth’s interior from heterogeneous data. The paper further draws connections with the discovery of natural quasicrystals, which form under extreme, non-equilibrium conditions and encode information about high-energy cosmic processes. Across astrophysics, geophysics, and materials science, a shared epistemology emerges: the extraction of structure from transformed signals through inversion and modelling. This convergence suggests that cross-disciplinary methods can advance the study of extreme environments across scales. Ultimately, the author advocates for an integrative, multiscale approach to science, positioning the Earth as part of a broader cosmic continuum and arguing that innovations such as an Earth Telescope could transform our understanding of planetary dynamics and the evolution of matter in the Universe.
This study aims to understand the mechanisms of deterioration and the side effects of carbon ink on papyrus manuscripts, which are essential for developing effective preventive and intervention strategies. The impact of carbon ink on various properties of papyrus sheets—including morphological, mechanical, and chemical characteristics—was examined. Some un-inked and inked papyrus samples were prepared and subjected to accelerated heat and light aging processes to produce aged samples comparable to archaeological specimens for analysis. Several analytical techniques were used, including a digital microscope and a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), color measurement with a spectrophotometer, assessments of mechanical properties such as tensile strength and elongation, and elemental analysis through EDX. Chemical changes in the samples were evaluated using X-ray diffraction (XRD) to determine the crystallinity index and ATR-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR). The results showed that carbon ink affected the properties of papyrus sheets. Notably, inked samples exhibited a significant color change compared to un-inked samples. Mechanical properties, including tensile strength and elongation, decreased, and the crystallinity index also declined. XRD analysis indicated increased cellulose crystallinity in un-inked papyrus samples, whereas inked samples did not show this increase. Additionally, ATR-FTIR analysis revealed chemical changes in the inked papyrus, particularly oxidation of the fibers.
The increasing rate of CO2 emission and global warming are the prime causes for changing global climate. Biological C-sequestration using photosynthetic plants play significantly crucial roles to manage these problems. The present study focused to enhance the biomass growth-dependent carbon dioxide sequestration efficacy of Azolla pinnata by optimizing temperature, light intensity and CO2 concentration. To optimize the climatic factors for maximum growth, the A. pinnata was grown in tap water treated with 10
Resolving chemical species at the submicrometer scale is crucial in Heritage Science, where synchrotron radiation (SR)-based X-ray methods, including µ-XRF mapping and µ-XANES spectroscopy, offer unique insights into the composition of heterogeneous and opaque materials, such as degraded inorganic pigments in paintings. However, the high intensity and brightness of SR beams pose significant risks of radiation damage, which can compromise both sample integrity and data interpretation. This challenge is notably evident in Prussian blue (a ferric hexacyanoferrate pigment), where X-ray induced photoreduction of Fe3+ to Fe2+ interferes with speciation analysis in faded artworks, necessitating rigorous experimental strategies to ensure data reliability. To address this, we present a multi-scale and multi-technique approach aimed at safely investigating the light-induced degradation of Prussian blue in oil paintings via SR-based X-ray micro-spectroscopic techniques. The study focuses on the 1802 painting Pamphilus and his Servant Davus by the Danish artist Nicolai Abildgaard (Copenhagen, 1743-Frederiksdal, 1809), which exhibits various degrees of fading in the Prussian blue-based paints, particularly evident when comparing light-exposed areas to those protected by the frame. After evaluating the paint composition and fading at the macro-scale using a set of non-invasive MOLAB techniques (namely colorimetry, reflectance UV–VIS–NIR and external reflection mode FT-IR spectroscopies), two micro-samples from light-exposed and unexposed areas were selected for SR-based µ-XRF mapping and µ-XANES spectroscopy at the Fe K-edge. In parallel, a series of Prussian blue-based oil paint mock-ups were prepared, photoaged, and analyzed in advance of historical samples to establish optimal conditions for mitigating SR X-ray induced Fe3+→Fe2+ reduction during measurements, achieved by systematically varying fluence, dose, and temperature. Under these optimized, non-damaging conditions, we successfully mapped the stratigraphic distribution of iron compounds at submicrometric resolution in the historical cross-sections. The results, unaffected by analytical artifacts, revealed the nature of the secondary products responsible for the observed fading in Abildgaard’s painting. Consequently, this research offers a validated experimental approach for future SR-based X-ray micro-spectroscopy studies of Prussian blue degradation in other artworks.
Solar activity presents a critical, modern threat to Geodesy, a discipline dependent on dedicated missions data and high-precision global navigation satellite system. This paper reviews key solar phenomena, as flares, coronal mass ejections, and high-speed solar wind streams, that perturb the near-Earth space environment. We analyze the resulting degradation across two key areas: satellite orbits and signal quality. First, very low and low Earth orbit satellites suffer significant orbital perturbations due to variable drag caused by fluctuations in solar radiation pressure and substantial solar ultraviolet and extreme-ultraviolet driven enhancements in thermospheric density. These effects are also relevant for high-precision geodetic missions operating far from Earth. Second, the integrity of the global navigation satellite system signal itself is compromised by ionospheric disturbances that induce scintillation, leading to severe positioning inaccuracies (signal loss, cycle slips), which are intolerable for millimeter-level geodetic applications. Ultimately, this work emphasizes the critical importance of utilizing observational data to capture solar activity. Sophisticated modeling of these complex, multi-scale solar effects is essential for ensuring the continued reliability and precision of modern geodetic solutions.
Manuscript herbals containing refined pictures of plant species were compiled in Veneto (NE Italy) during the 14th and early 15th century. The earliest (late 15th century) printed herbals, by contrast, are illustrated by rough woodcuts copied from older works, reflecting the conservative character of the coeval botanical science. Plant’s iconography’s rebirth, characterized by an unprecedented scientific approach, began in the 16th century, unrelated to the medieval tradition, as a consequence of the scientific revolution fostered by the Ferrara school of medical humanism. The first example of scientific iconography emerged from the collaboration of the botanist O. Brunfels, a follower of the Ferrara school, with the draughtsman H. Weiditz, a disciple of A. Dürer. A distinctive feature of their work is the faithful depiction of individual plant specimens, including all their peculiarities. The almost contemporary L. Fuchs pursued an opposite way: his woodcuts, drawn by A. Meyer, represent plant species rather than specimens, omitting accidental traits and highlighting only the characteristics of the species. P. A. Mattioli’s treatise, illustrated by G. Liberale and W. Meyerpeck, developed Fuchs’s stylistic option, achieving an unprecedented union of high quality drawings and in-depth analysis of the species and the relevant literature. Wood engraving declined in the second half of the century, with the exception of J. Camerarius, in the eighties, who introduced different scales to represent the entire plant and its details, and marked the end point of wood engraving in botanical iconography. Precise plant images coupled with accurate nomenclature, diffused through printed volumes, were essential to establish a universally accepted botanical nomenclature.
Ocean acoustic tomography was introduced by Munk and Wunsch in the early 80s as the only remote sensing tool capable of measuring the ocean interior properties. The ocean is in fact opaque to electromagnetic radiation but is transparent to sound. Sound waves can into the abyssal depths and cross very quickly the vast ocean expanses, being the sound speed velocity 1500 m/sec at its minimum. The objective of this paper is to illustrate the inception of the idea; the first major experiments carried out, focused first on mapping the mesoscale eddy field and monitoring the large scale ocean circulation, most importantly its temperature (density) field. The major difficulty of the technique is that it provides integral averages of the sound speed over the interior acoustic ray paths. The problem is hence to disentangle the acoustic data transforming them into pointwise measurements analogous to those taken by traditional oceanographic instrumentation such as mooring arrays and survey vessels. These is accomplished using mathematical inverse theories introduced in oceanography by Wunsch in the 80s. The methodology however induces very significant errors for which the resulting tomographic maps provide just pattern recognitions. This fundamental drawback was overcome with the emergence of the climate problem. The most important parameter for the assessment of global warming is temperature and the most important measurement is the average temperature increase of the global ocean with respect to previous reference averages. This led to the concept of ATOC, Acoustic Ocean Thermometer, and the tomographic experiments of the 90s were in fact focused on the climate objective. Unfortunately, for reasons discussed in the paper, acoustic tomography did not achieve this goal which would have constituted an epochal landmark in the history of physical oceanography. Here is where my paper stops. I do no cover the tomographic experimental efforts carried out in the years after the 2000s nor the related literature. My objective is to describe the introduction of the tomographic concept, the large scale and global experiments and the excitement they produced in the oceanographic community. Even if they failed, they marked the two decades of 80s and 90s. Their follow-ups do not measure to that excitement.
This paper analyzes the seasonal and annual patterns of precipitation and temperature in the Castelporziano Nature Reserve from 1980. It also considers an index that combines precipitation and evapotranspiration. The results indicate various patterns within this small region, primarily influenced by the distance from the coast. Additionally, there is a clear upward trend in temperature. The joint analysis of precipitation and temperature shows that the most recent years have been characterized as either the hottest and driest or the hottest and most humid. Furthermore, there has been a significant increase in tropical nights and a longer duration of warm spells for maximum temperatures.
The electronic properties of graphene nanoflakes (GNFs) can be effectively tailored by substitutional boron and nitrogen doping. Using density functional theory (DFT) at the B3LYP/6-311G(d, p) level with dispersion corrections, we systematically investigated how dopant concentration and configuration influence stability, band gap modulation, and chemical reactivity. RMSD values (10⁻⁵–10⁻⁴) confirm that both symmetric and asymmetric B/N-doped structures remain geometrically stable, while cohesive energy analysis reveals a systematic reduction from − 21.24 eV/atom (pristine) to − 19.89 eV/atom (asymmetric B3N3), indicating that doping weakens binding but without structural collapse. Pristine GNFs exhibit a wide band gap of 4.02 eV and no dipole moment, while doping reduces the gap to 2.19 eV in asymmetric B3N3 configurations, accompanied by a strong polarization (up to 5.43 D). Density of States and FMO analyses reveal that dopant-induced symmetry breaking introduces localized states near the Fermi level, enhancing orbital overlap and charge transfer pathways. Reactivity descriptors show that electrophilicity increases from 3.39 eV (pure GNFs) to 6.00 eV (B3N3 asymmetric), coupled with a notable work function reduction, indicating improved electron emission potential. These findings highlight that dopant configuration, rather than concentration, governs electronic tunability, making asymmetric B/N co-doping a promising strategy for designing GNFs for optoelectronic and catalytic applications.
A theoretical investigation of the instability of dust acoustic waves (DAWs) in a magnetized dust plasma (DP) including cold and hot dust grains under transverse turbulence is carried out. The reductive perturbation technique (RPT) is used to study the instability (growth-rate) conditions of the DA solitary waves by deriving the Zakharov–Kuznetsov (ZK) equation. The interplay between particle dynamics, magnetic field geometry, and plasma components in determining the stability and modulation instability of the nonlinear structures is revealed. It is found that the plasma parameters (i.e., the densities of cold/hot dust grains, the magnetic field strength, the negative dust charge number, and the nonextensive parameter) have significant impact on the growth rate and instability characteristics. Our current study will help to clarify the emergence and evolution of nonlinear phenomena in DPs in laboratory experiments as well as astrophysical environments such as Saturn’s rings, Jupiter’s magnetosphere, Earth’s mesosphere.
In the standard classification of European vegetation, the class Stipo-Trachynietea distachyae is currently recognized as encompassing Mediterranean therophytic swards and basiphilous grasslands along the southern edge of Europe, extending from Portugal to Greece and Crimea. This study provides a critical revision of the nomenclature of this class and its subordinate syntaxonomic units. While these syntaxon names are widely cited in the scientific literature, the present revision reveals that many of them are either invalid, illegitimate, or misapplied. The results have led to the identification of the correct forms of all syntaxon names, along with their nomenclatural types. To promote the stability of phytosociological nomenclature, the orders Ptilostemono stellati-Vulpietalia ciliatae and Stipo capensis-Bupleuretalia semicompositi, the alliance Hypochaeridion achyrophori, and the associations Orlayetum grandiflorae and Erodio neuradifolii-Plantaginetum zwierleinii have been validated. The alliances Omphalodion commutatae and Stipion retortae O. de Bolòs 1958 have been lectotypified, the names Stipo capensis-Trachynietea distachyae and Trachynion distachyae have been mutated to Stipo capensis-Brachypodietea distachyi and Brachypodion distachyi, respectively, and the name Plantagini coronopodis-Catapodion marini has been corrected. Finally, two proposals are announced for the conservation of the names Brachypodietalia distachyi Rivas-Martínez 1978 and Lygeo sparti-Stipetalia Braun-Blanquet et O. de Bolòs 1958 with the aim of stabilising these names in accordance with current usage. These results are essential for ensuring the consistent application of syntaxonomic concepts and for guiding future updates and refinements of the standard classification of European vegetation, for advancing knowledge, disseminating research findings, and ensuring the effective management and conservation of European biodiversity.
Groundwater resource availability is essential for both human needs and ecosystem equilibrium. In the context of ongoing climate change, the water table in the Castelporziano Presidential Estate has shown a significant decline in recent years. To understand this phenomenon, a 30-year analysis of groundwater level trends was conducted. A first comparison of water table fluctuation with rainfall variations does not explain the lowering of the piezometric levels, especially in the central zone of the study area. By comparing the changes in water table levels and soil water content over time with the Standardized Precipitation and Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI at 12 and 3 months temporal scale), a strong correlation among recharge and exhaustion phases and the cycling through wet and dry periods has been inferred, confirming the crucial role of evapotranspiration. Despite the absence of -trend in rainfall, the clear raising trend of temperature triggered higher evapotranspiration values. This process has reduced the water surplus available for aquifer recharge. Nevertheless, the groundwater resilience allows the water table to react to the first multi-year period of drought (1999–2008) in the following years. Unfortunately, since 2016 this fragile equilibrium has been menaced by a new prolonged drought period, having negative consequences on the water table, which is strongly decreasing. The Standardized Groundwater Index SGI values confirm negative conditions since 2008, reaching the most negative values in recent observation years. This crisis, supported by the reduction of the soil moisture during last decade, has likely contributed to the strong problems registered in the Castelporziano forest since 2016.
Urbanization and land-use transformations are increasingly threatening peri-urban natural reserves, altering their ecological balance and long-term resilience. This study examines the anthropogenic impact on the Castelporziano Nature Reserve, a protected coastal Mediterranean ecosystem located on the outskirts of Rome, Italy. Despite its legal protection, the reserve is experiencing environmental stress due to urban expansion, increased water consumption, and changes in land use, all of which are modifying hydrological processes and affecting forest ecosystem stability. To assess these dynamics, we employed a multi-temporal analysis of vegetative vigor using Sentinel-2 multispectral imagery and the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI). The NDVI values were calibrated with extensive field surveys to improve accuracy in detecting vegetation decline. Our results show a significant reduction in photosynthetic activity within the deciduous oak forests, which cover 2,352 hectares and account for 52
The Castelporziano Presidential Estate, a State Nature Reserve of roughly 6,000 hectares covered by natural forests, with over 30 years of field data collection is a precious data hub that might contribute to better understand the effects of Climate Change abiotic and biotic-related stress on natural vegetation and, eventually, to their ecosystem services provision. This research presents on-going studies on plant-environment interactions conducted within the Estate, with a focus on ecosystem carbon fluxes, pollution (ozone and particulate matter), drought and heat stress, and biotic infections that have occurred over time. The present study concentrates over the period from 2013 to 2024. In the first part, we present a series of continuous measurements on a semi-hourly basis, which was undertaken to build up a time series capable of interpreting the effect of the control factors (climate, ecological processes, water availability) on the eco-physiological parameters of the holm oak forest. Ten years of high-frequency measurements allowed us to estimate the possible effect of climate and water availability on carbon assimilation. The holm oak forest of Castelporziano showed high rates of carbon assimilation each year with minimal changes in response to drought and high temperatures, thus making this ecosystem particularly resilient to climate changes. In the second part, we present remote sensing-based analyses that investigate changes of vegetation health and function over the last six years, which were affected by both biotic (pest invasion) and abiotic (more frequent and intense droughts) factors.
Stone pines (Pinus pinea) are a dominant species in Mediterranean coastal forests, playing a crucial ecological and landscape role. However, these ecosystems are experiencing increasing pressure from rising temperatures, prolonged droughts, and other stressors, which weaken trees and make them more susceptible to natural disturbances, such as insect infestations, leading to significant forest decline. This study presents a multi-platform, temporal, and spatial resolution remote sensing approach to detect and monitor insect outbreaks. The study area is Castelporziano Presidential Estate (Rome, Italy), a pine-dominated periurban forest of high ecological value and severely affected by Tomicus destruens (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) and Toumeyella parvicornis (Hemiptera: Coccidae). Very high-resolution Pléiades and DigitalGlobe images were used to map forest disturbances accurately and to assess the accuracy of the yearly forest disturbance maps obtained through Sentinel-2 data. Sentinel-2 data enabled the production of yearly disturbance maps in near real time (NRT), improving the Three Indices Three Dimensions (3I3D) unsupervised forest disturbance algorithm. Lastly, PlanetScope data were used to calculate the Mean Time Lag (MTL) between disturbance occurrence and detection in Sentinel-2 NRT images, revealing an average detection delay of 8.5 days. Additionally, the unsupervised model’s performance was evaluated, yielding an overall accuracy of 85
This study presents the first report on the biogenic synthesis of gold nanoparticles with the help of Cucurma caesia aqueous extract (CcAuNPs). The CcAuNPs physiochemical characteristics were analysed using various methods. In addition, the study also examines the eco-friendly synthesis of CcAuNPs by assessing their potential toxicity and efficacy. The characterization findings confirmed the successful synthesis of more stable, crystalline and spherical CcAuNPs with an average size of 36.48 nm. The phytotoxicity of CcAuNPs was performed by exposing the seeds of Vigna radiata (Mung bean) to different CcAuNPs concentrations. Results suggested that the growth parameters, namely fresh mass, root and shoot length increased at lower concentrations (upto 3.12 µg/ml), while higher concentrations exhibited inhibitory effects. Embryotoxicity analysis was also performed using the live model embryos of Danio rerio (Zebra fish) to assess the developmental toxicity of CcAuNPs. On treatment with different concentrations of CcAuNPs, the hatching rate, heartbeat rate, survival rate, and morphological abnormalities of the embryos were observed. The findings implied that an increasing concentration of CcAuNPs exhibited delayed hatching, increased heartbeat, increased mortality, and random abnormalities, indicating the concentration-dependent toxicity. Overall, this study adds insight on the probable environmental impacts of CcAuNPs and emphasizes the significance of evaluating the toxicity before applying in various agricultural, biomedical and environmental applications.
This paper studies the impact on model precipitation forecast of the combined assimilation of GNSS-ZTD (global navigation satellite system–zenith total delay) data and gradients compared to the GNSS-ZTD assimilation alone. Two case studies are considered over Lombardy, northern Italy, where data from 28 GNSS receivers were available, with three different model configurations: one without GNSS data assimilation (CTRL), one with GNSS-ZTD data assimilation (ZTD) and one with both ZTD and gradients data assimilation (ZTDGRAD). Simulations are performed by Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model and last 12 h for each case study. Assimilation is performed by 3DVar through WRFDA software. Two forecast phases lasting 3 h are analyzed for each case study: hours from 1 to 4 (1–4 h) and hours from 3 to 6 (3–6 h) after the end of the assimilation phase. Precipitation is verified against data coming from about 1300 rain gauges. GNSS data assimilation improves CTRL forecast for both cases, better catching events location and intensities and reducing false alarms. For the first case, GNSS data assimilation has a positive impact at both 1–4 h and 3–6 h phases, while for the second case the impact given by GNSS data assimilation is positive for the 1–4 h phase and neutral for the 3–6 h phase. Among the two configurations with GNSS data assimilation, ZTDGRAD shows the best performances for both cases.
The widespread presence of microplastics (MPs) in aquatic environments has raised concerns about their interactions with biotic systems, including potential degradation during digestion by aquatic organisms. This study explores the susceptibility of two common polymers, polyamide (PA, Nylon 6,6) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET), to enzymatic degradation by two representative fish digestive enzymes, pepsin and lipase. An in vitro protocol was developed to simulate the gastric and intestinal conditions of sardine (Sardinops sagax) and yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares), varying pH, enzyme activity, and exposure time. The degradation extent was assessed through mass loss and surface/molecular alterations analyzed by stereomicroscopy and FTIR-ATR spectroscopy. Pepsin promoted partial degradation of PA, with up to 3.6
Bacterial glycoconjugates are central players at the host–microbe interface. Their remarkable structural diversity underlies broad biological functions but also complicates their molecular characterization. This review highlights NMR spectroscopy and computational methods as essential tools to address this complexity. NMR provides atomic-level insights into structural details, conformational dynamics, and binding epitopes. Computational approaches complement these results, predicting conformations, refining interaction models, and linking flexibility to recognition events. Combined with additional biophysical techniques, these strategies enable a multidisciplinary framework for investigating the structure and conformation of bacterial glycoconjugates as well as the molecular basis of their interaction with host receptors. Case studies illustrate how the synergy of experimental and theoretical methods can come to the aid of providing high-resolution models that connect molecular structure with biological functions. Looking ahead, this integrated approach is crucial for disclosing the structural basis of recognition by host proteins, clarifying mechanisms of immune evasion, and defining protective epitopes relevant for vaccine design, thus promising translational applications, including diagnostics, immunotherapy, and the rational design of next-generation antimicrobial strategies.
Among the sixteenth century herbaria preserved in Bologna (Northern Italy), there is an anonymous herbarium (so far provisionally referred to as ‘Aldrovandi’s School’), which has been totally neglected until today: we tried therefore to shed light on this work thanks to a botanical, historical, codicological and palaeographical analysis. The herbarium, that consists of one bound volume with 216 pages, dated between 1568 and (at the latest) the beginning of the 1600s, previously belonging to Antonio Bertoloni’s library. The watermarks present are the same as in Ulisse Aldrovandi’s manuscripts preserved in the Biblioteca Universitaria di Bologna. There are 231 exsiccata, belonging to 182 species as currently circumscribed, most of which are common in continental Europe and northern Italy, particularly in Emilia-Romagna. At least five different authors have been recognised in the handwritten identifications of the specimens, which are however limited to 96 cases out of 231, sometimes with notable errors. The nomenclature adopted by one of the compilers constantly follows Mattioli’s Discorsi edition of 1568; the others mostly use vernacular names. Globally, this work has to be considered as unfinished and is probably the product of a very diverse group of people, with different skills and functions, operating in Bologna’s botanical garden during the second half of the 1500s. The work was carried on independently, without the supervision of any scientist; in particular, Aldrovandi’s participation can be excluded. Therefore, until new light is shed on the possible identity of the authors, we propose to name this herbarium as «Anonimo Bolognese».
