This study investigates how proximity and elevation relative to Interstate-495 highway (I-495) in Queens, New York, influence soil bacterial community structure. Twelve soil samples were collected across a 673,312-m² area with uniform sand, clay, and silt composition, spanning a gradient of increasing distance and elevation from roadside conditions (RC). Using 16S rRNA gene sequencing targeting the V3/V4 hypervariable regions, microbial diversity and composition were assessed across samples. Results revealed that soils closest to RC but at higher elevation exhibited reduced bacterial diversity and phylogenetic breadth, with dominance of Coxiella burnetii, Streptococcus spp., and Achromobacter. In contrast, the sample at the same elevation as the roadside (CC_I495_3) displayed the highest Shannon diversity (7.67), Faith’s Phylogenetic Diversity (27.14), and a more even taxonomic distribution, including rare and evolutionarily distinct taxa such as Myxococcus and Nitrospira. Notably, uncultured species were significantly more prevalent in this low-elevation RC-exposed sample. Of the 502 operational taxonomic units (OTUs) identified, 189 were unique to RC-exposed soils, 114 were exclusive to NO-RC soils, and 199 were shared across both groups. These findings suggest that both proximity and elevation modulate microbial community assembly.
The Ortolan bunting is an Old World bunting distributed across 20.2 million km2 in the central and western Palearctic regions, breeding from sea level to 3,300 m. Most of the population is spending the winter in Sub-Saharan Africa north of 5°N migrating mainly along two flyways, on each side of the Mediterranean Sea. The current theory about the bird’s population dynamics and biogeography has been developed from transitory research in geographically disconnected surveys on the European and African continent over the last 30 years, handled in stochastic models and population viability analyses. The theory posits that the species was abundant in antecedent times but the previously continuous population became fragmented and underwent a very steep decline in central and western Europe from the middle of the 20th century due to negative anthropogenic effects and hunting. The population segment in Fennoscandia has become isolated from the rest of Europe due to lack of contemporary gene flow from the south and the species is directly threatened with extinction. A review of 948 interdisciplinary literary sources across 435 years (1590-2025) from 18 European countries, the Americas, Africa, Asia and Australia was conducted to explore if the Ortolan bunting’s population development could be understood differently with insight gleaned from empirical material on a large spatiotemporal scale. The review revealed that a hundred-years perspective is necessary to obtain a true picture as shorter time will only expose fractions of events interpreted out of context. Historical data disagree with the claim that current distribution is due to fragmentation of a continuous population. The distribution has been restricted to the same “geographical islands” now perceived as fragments across at least the last 300 years. The structure of the population does not indicate restricted gene flow to Fennoscandia from the south as historically the species has not been established in areas immediately south of the peninsula. It was colonized from the east. Antecedent hunting results cited in current scientific literature to validate immense harvest are erroneous, as are the annual catch estimates from France around the turn of the Millennium used to predict the bird’s extinction in Fennoscandia. In the last 260 years the population in Europe has undergone temporally long fluctuations (range expansions and contractions) with transient shifts between occurrence and absence manifested by distinct peaks and nadirs in abundance, superimposed on a negative trend. The main drivers may have been a variable immigration rate (fluctuations) and asymmetric growth (negative trend).
The last checklist of Italian Oedemeridae was published by Bologna in 1995, framed by the first version of the checklist of the Italian metazoans. After 31 years, we provide a revised checklist for the Italian Oedemeridae by adding newly recorded taxa, updating taxonomy and increasing the resolution of the presence data to the regional level. Moreover, we present an open-source interactive website allowing data visualization through table-like format or a map, and the possibility of filtering and exporting the data. The checklist now covers 44 species, 3 of which are represented in Italy by 2 subspecies each, belonging to 11 genera. Overall, 13% of the species and subspecies are endemic to the study area, and our biogeographic analysis highlighted how the diversity increases with region size, with a significant proportion of specific and subspecific taxa restricted to a single region. Finally, we discuss the results in the context of Italian biogeography and species diversity in other European countries, and provide the details on how to use the website for exploring the checklist.
The conditioning variables for the establishment of Amblypygi populations and their ecological interactions are currently poorly studied. Delving deeper into this can help to conserve this group of short-range distribution species, which are useful as a model in biogeographic research. In this study, we evaluated the distribution and overlapping patterns of ecological niche in six species of amblypygids (Phrynus araya, P. panche, P. pulchripes, Heterophrynus batesii, H. boterorum, H. cervinus) in the Andean and Amazonian ecosystems of Colombia, revealing a clear biogeographic segregation driven by environmental gradients: Phrynus species were associated with inter-Andean valleys with high thermal and water seasonality. While the Heterophrynus occupied more stable and humid conditions of foothills and middle elevations. Overlap analyses showed significant divergence (e.g., D=0.105 between P. panche and H. batesii), with high unfilling values (up to 73.2%), indicating limited niche overlap and habitat specialization, although historical coexistence was detected in certain pairs of species (e.g., 99.1% stability between H. cervinus and H. boterorum). In the future, the integration of ecological niche modeling (ENM) with phylogeographic and behavioral approaches will be crucial for identifying niche partitioning mechanisms and optimizing conservation strategies for endemic taxa in complex tropical landscapes.
Macroinvertebrate communities in the Upper Loukkos basin (northern Morocco) exhibited marked spatio-temporal variability across contrasting hydrological phases, reflecting the dynamic nature of Mediterranean intermittent systems. Sampling at 18 sites, comprising both protected and impacted reaches, during post-flood and post-drought periods (2014–2015), revealed a total of 102 species. Assemblage composition changed across seasons and sites, largely driven by hydroseasonal dynamics, habitat connectivity, and environmental gradients. Chorological patterns showed a clear predominance of taxa associated with Mediterranean biogeographical affinities, with endemic species accounting for 25% of the assemblage. Protected headwater sites supported higher diversity and a greater proportion of specialist taxa, particularly under post-drought conditions, highlighting their role in maintaining community structure under hydrological variability. Some groups, notably Coleoptera, persisted under low-flow conditions, demonstrating both resistance and recolonisation capacity. Community structure was primarily shaped by interacting environmental and seasonal filters, with a noticeable decline in sensitive lotic taxa, especially during dry periods. Multivariate analyses showed a diffuse community structure across sites and seasons, reflecting the combined effects of hydroseasonal dynamics and environmental gradients on biotic assemblages. Our results indicate that the Upper Loukkos basin acts as a micro-reserve interface, where geographic position, historical context, and topographic complexity contribute to the maintenance of regionally distinctive biodiversity within the western Mediterranean. This highlights the need to integrate multi-scale environmental drivers into biomonitoring frameworks, particularly in intermittent systems where community dynamics remain closely constrained by hydrological variability and where disturbance-sensitive taxa appear especially vulnerable.
We report the first record of the brine shrimp genus Artemia (Branchiopoda, Anostraca, Artemiidae) from Armenia, based on specimens collected in two saline ponds (collectively referred to as “Lake Aghi”) in the Yerevan area. Individuals were identified through an integrative approach combining morphological examination and mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) sequencing. All examined specimens were females and exhibited morphological traits compatible with parthenogenetic Artemia, although these characters alone are not sufficient for a definitive identification. Molecular analyses revealed a single COI haplotype attributable to a parthenogenetic lineage widely distributed across the Palaearctic region and closely related to the sexual species A. amati. No evidence of the occurrence of the invasive species Artemia franciscana was found. A synopsis of the anostracan fauna of Armenia based on available literature is also provided. This finding broadens current knowledge of anostracan diversity and distribution in the South Caucasus region and highlights the need for further surveys to better characterize the large branchiopod fauna of the country.
The aim of this study was to investigate the phytocoenotic associations, age composition, and ontogenetic structure of Medicago sativa L. coenopopulations in Uzbekistan. Research was conducted in the Eastern Cliff of Ustyurt (Karakuduk, Kassarma, Akbulak), in the Pamir – Alay mountain system, including the southwestern and northern spurs of the Gissar Range, the Kukhitangtau Mountains, the Sangardak River basin, Zhindarya, the Baysuntau Mountains (Upper Machai), and the Nuratau Mountains (Hayatsay), as well as in the Tien-Shan mountain system, including the Kuramin Range (Kamchik mountain pass) and the Tashkent Alatau (vicinity of the village Nevich). A total of ten coenopopulations were studied under various ecological and phytocoenotic conditions. The results showed that the coenopopulations are generally normal but incomplete. The basic ontogenetic spectrum is centered, corresponding to the generative stage with a predominance of middle generative individuals and, considering the biological characteristics of the species (a taproot system with well-developed lateral roots), corresponds to the characteristic type. Coenopopulations (CP 1, 6, 7, 9) of the left-sided type represent deviations from the characteristic pattern, likely determined by anthropogenic factors, habitat conditions, soil properties, and vegetation cover. Evaluation of age structure (Δ) and population efficiency (ω) indicated that most coenopopulations belong to the maturing type.
This study investigates the north-eastern distributional limits of four short-winged endemic Orthoptera from the north-western Alps: Anonconotus ghilianii, A. pusillus, Epipodisma pedemontana, and Stenobothrus ursulae. Their spatial and altitudinal distributions were addressed within the Special Protection Area (SPA) IT1202020 “Mont Avic and Mont Emilius”, including the Mont Avic Natural Park, representing the north-eastern biogeographical margin for A. pusillus, E. pedemontana, and S. ursulae. In contrast, A. ghilianii occurs in the area as a small and isolated population of particular biogeographical interest. For comparison, two additional short-winged species with broader European ranges, Bohemanella frigida and Podisma pedestris, were also examined. A total of 258 records collected during 2020–2021 allowed the reconstruction of fine-scale distribution patterns within the study area. Most records (91.5%) were obtained above 1,950 m, highlighting the strong altitudinal affinity of these taxa. Higher upper altitudinal limits were documented for E. pedemontana (2,842 m a.s.l.) and S. ursulae (3,074 m), while the other two endemic species were confirmed at their upper elevational thresholds, with occurrences recorded in this study at 2,482 m for A. ghilianii and 2,827 m for A. pusillus. The spatial and altitudinal patterns observed are discussed in a broader Alpine context, and the distribution ranges of the four endemic species are interpreted in relation to adjacent mountainous sectors. The discussion of the genus Anonconotus also includes two additional species distributed adjacent to the study area, A. alpinus and A. occidentalis. These findings contribute to a better understanding of peripheral range dynamics, high-altitude biogeographical structuring, and the biogeographical history of endemic short-winged Orthoptera of the north-western Alps.
We studied functional habitat connectivity for Natrix helvetica cetti, a rare and endangered island endemic taxon with a highly fragmented range on Sardinia. Using the habitat suitability model recently developed for this species as input, we applied circuit-theory based connectivity analyses in Julia, combining pairwise runs among all known occurrence localities with an omnidirectional analysis independent of focal nodes. Both approaches converged in identifying the eastern mountain chain as the main connectivity backbone, with a particularly strong corridor linking the Sarrabus reliefs in the south-east to the Barbagia region and, more weakly, to the Monte Limbara area in the north. Additionally, fainter routes were detected along the Iglesiente ranges in south-western Sardinia. Pinch point extraction based on the 95th percentile further identified the main priority connectivity corridors along this eastern backbone. The highest current flow generally connected areas previously predicted to have high habitat suitability, and also highlighted sectors with no confirmed records, suggesting priorities for targeted surveys. Of the identified priority areas, only about 50% fell within protected areas in Circuitscape, whereas this proportion increased to 65% in Omniscape. Our results indicate that corridors in eastern Sardinia are likely to be crucial for maintaining gene flow and long-term persistence of N. h. cetti and provide a spatial basis for integrating this island-restricted reptile into regional connectivity planning and future genetic and health assessments.
The snake fauna of the Mediterranean islands has been shaped by multiple processes, including both natural and human-mediated dispersal. Various past human cultures and recent changes in trade and transportation have played a crucial role in the expansion of some species into insular environments. The snakes present on the Maltese archipelago are particularly emblematic of this complex mix of dispersal events. The European Cat Snake, Telescopus fallax (Fleischmann, 1831), forms a species complex widespread from the Balkans to the Middle East and across many eastern Mediterranean islands, regarded in most of the literature as introduced on the Maltese archipelago. Here we genetically investigated the Maltese populations of T. fallax using the mitochondrial marker Cytochrome b, with the aim of properly identifying their genetic affiliation and tracing their possible origin. The eight sequences obtained from the populations of Malta and Gozo shared the same mitochondrial haplotype and clustered together with the Balkan clade of T. fallax, thereby supporting their affiliation to the currently recognized nominotypical subspecies. The haplotype of the Maltese Cat Snake is identical to that of populations from the western Peloponnese and the island of Skyros (Sporades, Greece). The lack of variability found between the studied populations and some from southern Greece supports the hypothesis that this snake was introduced during historical times. The succession of many small Hellenic communities on the Maltese archipelago over the last few millennia suggests a possible Greek-mediated introduction; however, precisely because of the repeated presence of these influences over time, it is difficult to pinpoint the exact timing of introduction.
Terrestrial isopods (Isopoda: Oniscidea) are a diverse and ecologically important taxon, yet knowledge of their diversity in Italy remains uneven. Liguria, a small but biogeographically complex region of north-western Italy, had long lacked a synthesis of its oniscidean fauna despite the numerous studies carried out in early 20th-century. Here we provide a comprehensive assessment of Ligurian terrestrial isopod fauna based on a critical review of historical literature and examination of material preserved in museum collections or collected during recent field surveys. A total of 109 species in 38 genera and 18 families are recorded, representing more than one quarter of all terrestrial isopods known from Italy. Armadillidium genuaense n. sp. is described, and figures of several poorly described species are provided. Haplophthalmus portofinensis, Cylisticus ligurinus, and Armadillidium albigauni are considered junior synonyms of H. mengii, C. annulicornis, and A. gestroi, respectively. Three families and seven genera are recorded for the first time in Liguria, and three species—Trichoniscus darwini, T. nicaeensis and Caeroplastes porphyrivagus—represent new records for Italy. At the same time, five previously cited species could not be confirmed, and one is treated as species inquirenda. Chorological analysis underscores Liguria’s role as a biogeographic crossroad, with nearly half of the fauna belonging to Alpine or Apennine categories. A high level of endemism is observed, with 15 species restricted to the administrative region and 27 to the broader Ligurian geographic area. Persistent taxonomic uncertainties in some genera underscore the necessity of further revisions. By providing the first comprehensive assessment of the Oniscidean fauna from Liguria, this study establishes a necessary baseline for future research in the region.
The hydrozoan fauna of the Mediterranean Sea is considered as the best-known fauna of this class in the world, and the last monograph covers 457 species representing about 12% of the 3,702 currently valid species reported in the last world assessment of hydrozoan diversity. In this paper the checklist of the hydrozoan marine species is reported for the nine Italian marine biogeographical units, updating the one previously published in the series ‘Checklist delle Specie della Fauna d'Italia’ in 1995 that reported 319 hydrozoans on 463 cnidarian taxa. This note describes the state of the art of the Italian Hydrozoa checklist data set until June 2024. In detail, the updated checklist includes 340 hydrozoan species (128 Anthoathecata; 121 Leptothecata; 53 Siphonophorae; 6 Limnomedusae; 3 Actinulida; 14 Narcomedusae; 15 Trachymedusae), representing 74% of Mediterranean hydrozoan species. In detail in the current Italian Hydrozoa checklist, 40 species were added (increase of 12%) compared to the previous checklist with 14 strictly endemic species (4% of the total) for the Italian waters, 55 (16%) subendemic ones, and 20 (6%) are alien species. On the other hand, 19 species reported in the previous checklist were removed because considered dubious, synonyms of older ones or without detailed distributions for our territory. In addition, 69 species (20%) expanded their biogeographic distribution. The checklist data set will be dynamically updated with new records, and it will be freely available from Lifewatch Italy at https://www.lifewatchitaly.eu/en/initiatives/checklist-fauna-italia-en/checklist. This note describes the state of the art of the Hydrozoan checklist data set until June 2024.
Globalisation has resulted in the introduction of alien species into new regions at an unprecedented rate. Some of these species become naturalised and pose a risk to the environment, agriculture, and human health. Insects represent one of the most invasive taxa with several disease vectors as well as agriculture and forest pests. Amongst the latter, Corythucha species are considered emerging pests since their life-history traits and host plant trade are helping their rapid spread. Therefore, early monitoring and reporting of highly invasive insect species are fundamental to implement pest management actions aimed at curtailing environmental and socioeconomic damage caused by these species. To this end, I updated the currently known distribution of alien Corythucha species invading Italy using a citizen-science approach, which is an easily repeatable approach that can be applied to other invasive species. In total, 234 records were retrieved from online databases/platforms, including five from the recently arrived invader C. marmorata. Most observations were made in summer and autumn in the months of August and September. The presence of Corythucha species was confirmed in newly invaded areas of Italy, demonstrating that citizen-science repositories are useful first-line tools to detect biological invasions, thus favouring rapid management.
Ant mimicry is a key defensive strategy of Colobopsis ants in the West Palaearctic. The chameleon ant Colobopsis imitans was initially described as a Western Mediterranean species, differing from the widespread sister species Co. truncata by showing morphological and behavioural adaptations to mimic Crematogaster scutellaris instead of Dolichoderus quadripunctatus. Recently, it was discovered to extend its geographic range to the Eastern Mediterranean and to mimic additional species of ants, including D. quadripunctatus and Cr. ionia. Here, we report the presence of Co. imitans in Lebanon for the first time. Lebanese Co. imitans workers were observed living in close association and following the trails of Cr. ionia and belonged to the Cr. ionia-mimicking “dark” colour morph. The Lebanese record represents the first of the species from the Levant, while old Co. truncata records from the region should be considered dubious.
The microscopic meiofauna dwelling freshwater and limnoterrestrial habitats remain poorly documented, despite representing an important, yet unseen, part of those ecosystems. Here, we report the results of a faunistic survey workshop intended to improve our knowledge of meiofauna diversity and distribution in a protected area: the Lake District National Park, UK. The survey workshop provided 299 occurrence records of 209 distinct morphological taxa of meiofauna belonging to 46 families, 24 orders and 11 phyla. These records are made publicly available through a shared online dataset. The highest number of taxa belonged to Arthropoda (58 taxa; i.e. 28% of records), followed by Rotifera (33; 16%), heterotrophic unicellular eukaryotes (30; 14%), Nematoda (26; 12%), Annelida (20; 10%), Tardigrada (19; 9%), Gastrotricha (12; 6%), and Platyhelminthes (11; 5%). Moss samples returned the highest number of taxa occurrences (136), followed by periphyton (54), epipsammon (34), interstitial (25), plankton (17), peat bogs (16), forest litter (7), soil (6), epizoic lifestyle on crustaceans (2), and lichen (2). By documenting a wide range of habitats and taxonomic groups, this survey workshop contributes to filling knowledge gaps on the distribution of meiofaunal taxa in nearly pristine freshwater and temperate rainforest ecosystems. The second role of the survey workshop was offering a 15-day field and laboratory training programme for a group of early career researchers, providing hands-on experience in morphotaxonomic identification, molecular barcoding techniques and finally in analysing and communicating the results in the form of the current publication.
The Brahminy blindsnake, Indotyphlops braminus (Daudin, 1803) complex, is a small, parthenogenetic typhlopid widely distributed across tropical and subtropical Asia and represented by numerous introduced populations worldwide. Although reported from neighbouring Pakistan and Iran, its occurrence in Afghanistan has remained unverified. During field surveys in Nangarhar Province, eastern Afghanistan, we collected a specimen morphologically consistent with I. braminus complex and generated mitochondrial DNA sequences (16S, COI, cytochrome b). Phylogenetic analyses, incorporating newly sequenced material from Pakistan, revealed that the Afghan and Pakistani samples form a distinct, well-supported clade within the I. braminus complex that is also known from southern India (I. cf. braminus II), and is genetically distinct from both I. braminus sensu stricto and the globally widespread introduced clade I. cf. braminus I. This constitutes the first genetically and morphologically confirmed record of Indotyphlops Hedges et al., 2014 from Afghanistan and the first published genetic data for the genus from Pakistan. Our findings extend the documented northwestern range limit of the I. braminus complex on the Indian subcontinent, with its occurrence in Afghanistan apparently associated with low-elevation subtropical river corridors and limited northwards by the high-elevation and arid landscapes of the Hindu Kush region. In addition, our global synthesis of genotyped records provides an “out-of-India” perspective on the worldwide introductions within the complex.
Modeling diversity of marine diatom communities by latitude for the late Paleocene and early Eocene provides context for future warming climates. The Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM) transition spans ~57 to 48 million years ago with global temperatures ranging from ~9 to 23°C higher than pre-industrial times. There are differing views whether modern carbon increases will lead to similar patterns in temperature and how it may impact global communities. This research used data provided by the International Ocean Discovery Program (IODP). The study examines how marine diatom communities responded to the rapid warming of the PETM as a potential analog for future marine diversity under a warming climate. Statistical analyses assess potential changes in diversity of diatom abundance data from existing marine sediment cores from Lomonosov Ridge in the Central Arctic Ocean, Blake Nose in the Western North Atlantic Ocean, and Broken Ridge in the Eastern Indian Ocean. Examining changes at different latitudes provides a more comprehensive picture of how rapid warming impacted diatom species richness and diversity across the globe. The Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index details change in diatom communities. Principal Component Analysis and Hierarchical Cluster analysis further refine variance between datasets. Results suggest diatom communities were negatively affected by the rapid warming of the PETM in middle latitude locations, while the Central Arctic Ocean diatom communities showed an increase in diatom species richness and diversity. The Central Arctic Ocean diatom community response may result from the more terrestrial paleogeography of the location during the PETM providing increased nutrient availability from runoff as well as poor diatom preservation. Changes in the Indian Ocean diatom If marine diatom communities suffer in middle latitude locations as the data suggests, then likely decreases in diatom species richness and diversity support a positive feedback loop for further warming. Challenges include inconsistent abundance measures complicating comparisons between datasets, lack of Antarctic samples, and some evidence diagenesis has limited diatoms preservation during the PETM in some locations.
Aquatic hyphomycete diversity and community composition varies with temperature in space and time. The distribution of species is influenced by temperature along latitudinal gradients, and species richness increases from tropical to temperate latitudes. This pattern is thought to result from an adaptation to cold water, as well as from the highest seasonal temperature fluctuation in temperate streams. Seasonal temperature variations actually influence the occurrence of species in temperate streams. However, much less is known about the seasonal variability of tropical aquatic hyphomycete communities, and no study to date compared this variability across latitudes. In this study, we sampled aquatic hyphomycete communities in 3 streams located under different climates (temperate, Mediterranean and tropical), every month during one year. According to our predictions, we found the highest seasonal variability of aquatic hyphomycete communities in the Mediterranean stream, where temperature fluctuations were also the strongest. However, and despite a high and relatively constant temperature, aquatic hyphomycete communities in the tropical stream exhibited significant seasonal variations as well as the highest species richness. This result contrasts with previous results and highlights the need for further comprehensive studies on aquatic hyphomycete biogeography.
Saphenophis tristriatus and Saphenophis sneiderni are poorly known snake species endemic to the Northern Andes of Colombia. Based on a recently collected specimen and photographs, we present new records for both species in the Central and Occidental (Western) cordilleras of Colombia along an elevational range between 1,700 to 2,940 m a.s.l. We also discuss the representativeness of snake endemism in the Cauca River basin (63,300 km2, 4.1% of the Northern Andes) using 0.5° x 0.5° grid cells. The record of S. tristriatus and S. sneiderni, plus additional photograph-based records, extends the known distribution approximately 200 km north from the previous known localities in southwestern Colombia. The review of additional snake species gathered 20 species which are endemic to this basin. A highly endemic snake concentration occurs at the middle Cauca River valley, where nine species are found in two grids. The fact that the Cauca River basin has such a high level of snake endemism’s compared to other areas worldwide is highly significant in biogeographical terms, particularly for disentangling the Central America and Northern South America snakes phylogeography.
The African Natural History Research Trust in Zambia collected specimens representing many new findings for research. The new tribe Oxyecoini is described for the genus Oxyecous, and the following synonymies are established: Clonia whalbergi maculosa (Walker, 1869) = Clonia whalbergi Stål, 1855 (Tettigoniidae, Saginae), Cultrinotus luanensis Uvarov, 1953 = Cultrinotus poultoni Bólivar, 1915 (Pamphagidae, Porthetinae). Further, the following species are recorded for the first time from Zambia: Pardalota haasi Griffini, 1908, Melidia brunneri Stål, 1876, Phaneroptera nigropunctata Chopard, 1955, Dannfeltia nana Sjöstedt, 1902 (Tettigoniidae, Phaneropterinae), and Enyaliopsis petersii (Schaum, 1853) (Tettigoniidae, Hetrodinae). Some taxonomic considerations are also made about the specialization of the inner side of the hind femur in the genus Cultrinotus.
