Personal identification is a fundamental component of forensic investigations, particularly in cases involving unidentified bodies and sexual offenses. Human hair, frequently encountered as trace evidence, can provide valuable information regarding sex differentiation through microscopic characteristics, especially medullary features. This cross-sectional autopsy-based study assessed sexual dimorphism in human body hair by evaluating hair shaft diameter, medullary diameter, and types of medulla in males and females from a North Indian population. Hair samples from the scalp, eyebrow, eyelashes, axilla, and pubic region were collected from 62 deceased individuals (30 males and 32 females) aged 18 years or older during medico-legal autopsies. Microscopic examination was performed using a compound microscope with an ocular micrometer. Quantitative variables were compared using the unpaired t-test, while qualitative variables were analysed using the chi-square or Fisher’s exact test. A statistically significant difference was observed between males and females in the mean diameter of eyebrow hair ( p < .01) and the mean diameter of the eyebrow medulla ( p = .01). No significant sex-based differences were noted in other body hair regions with respect to hair diameter, medullary diameter, or medullary pattern. Eyebrow hair demonstrated significant sex-related differences in hair shaft and medullary diameters and may have potential adjunctive value in sex estimation. However, these preliminary findings should be interpreted cautiously because of the small sample size and single-centre design. Larger multicentric studies are required before routine forensic application.
Historically, the colonial origin of Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code (IPC) became the question of intense legal and social dispute as it criminalized not only non-consensual but also consensual carnal intercourse applicable to everyone irrespective of gender. Indian legislation has undergone a regressive change in the absence of a provision equivalent to the erstwhile Section 377 IPC within the newly enacted Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS). The absence of a specific statutory provision against these crimes leaves law enforcement agencies with limited legal tools to respond to such complaints, which would exacerbate the underreporting of these crimes and further marginalize their victims. This review article covers the historical trajectory of Section 377 IPC, the battles between societal norms versus fundamental rights, and consensual versus non-consensual sexual acts in the eyes of the law. It further probes judicial observations made in various public interest litigations and landmark judgments, and critically assesses the noticeable legal void that exists within the current BNS in this context along with projected solutions.
Necrophilia, a rare and complex paraphilic disorder, involves a persistent sexual attraction to corpses, raising significant psychological, ethical, and legal concerns. Despite its serious ethical and constitutional implications, Indian criminal law does not explicitly criminalize necrophilia, resulting in doctrinal and prosecutorial ambiguity. In India, there is no clear legal framework to criminalize necrophilia, which leaves a gap in addressing this issue. The present study aims to explore the need for specific legal provisions in India and to delve into the psychological roots of necrophilia, examining its origins, causes, motivations, and broader impacts. A narrative literature review was conducted using databases such as Google Scholar, PubMed, ResearchGate, Springer, and ScienceDirect. Twenty review articles and three case reports published between 2010 and 2024 were included in the study. Findings indicate significant deficiencies in the Indian legal framework regarding the criminalization of necrophilia. Comparative analysis revealed that several countries explicitly criminalize sexual activity with corpses. Psychological literature suggests multifactorial etiological pathways involving psychodynamic, behavioral, attachment-related, and neurobiological mechanisms. Explicit statutory criminalization, forensic investigation protocols, and psychiatric assessment mechanisms are urgently required to safeguard posthumous dignity and improve medico-legal responses.
The manner of death is traditionally defined in the literature as the way in which an injury or disease occurred and produced a fatal physiological derangement in the body. However, in real-world practice, determining the manner of death is seldom straightforward or algorithmic. Autopsy surgeons often face significant challenges, especially when postmortem findings can simulate multiple possible causes of death, leading to considerable divergence from the theoretical framework. This dilemma becomes even more pronounced in cases where the body has been subjected to fire, further obscuring the interpretative process. We have discussed here the findings of postmortem examination of three cases in which the manner of death was investigated thoroughly by the authors. The manner of death, as determined through a logical and scientific autopsy, was found to be contrary to that considered by the investigating authorities. The significance of crime scene investigation and findings of thorough postmortem examination enabled the autopsy surgeons to comment on the possibility of the manner of death.
Eagle’s syndrome refers to the symptomatic elongation of the styloid process (SP) or ossification of the stylohyoid ligament (SHL), typically presenting with cervicofacial pain, dysphagia or vascular compression. While often symptomatic, a large proportion of cases remain undetected in life and are diagnosed incidentally during imaging or autopsy. This study represents three cases describing incidental findings of elongated SP (Eagle’s syndrome) found during routine medicolegal autopsies. Three adult males were found to have unilateral and bilateral elongated styloid processes or ossified SHLs without any prior history suggestive of Eagle’s syndrome. In our study, the length of the elongated styloid processes observed ranged 4.1–8.0 cm. In none of the cases was the causal relationship between this anatomical variant and the cause of death established. These autopsy findings highlight the clinically uninvestigated nature of many Eagle’s syndrome cases. Awareness regarding this entity becomes essential for both clinicians and forensic pathologists, especially when evaluating unexplained oro-facial pain, dysphagia and neurological complaints in life and also during medico-legal autopsy.
Exhumation is the lawful disinterment of a buried body for medico-legal purposes, primarily to ascertain the cause of death or establish identity, notably when allegations arise after burial. This retrospective study was conducted at Government Medical College and Hospital, Ongole, and involved analysis of hospital records over a 5-year period (2021–2025). The objective was to examine the forensic characteristics of exhumation autopsy cases with respect to indications for exhumation, socio-demographic profile of the deceased, determination of cause of death, and other relevant medico-legal parameters, based on hospital records and police inquest reports. A total of 22 exhumation autopsies were analysed, including 12 male (54.5%) and 10 female deceased (45.5%). Although allegations of homicide prompted exhumation in 15 cases (68.2%), homicidal death was confirmed in only 2 cases (9.1% of total cases and 13.3% cases with allegations of homicide). Exhumations were also undertaken for other medico-legal purposes such as insurance claims, alleged medical negligence, and road traffic accidents. The most common reasons for not conducting a primary autopsy prior to burial included post-burial emergence of allegations, lack of awareness regarding legal provisions, socio-cultural resistance to autopsy, and instances of clandestine burial. Despite challenges related to prolonged burial and advanced decomposition, a definitive cause of death was established in nine cases (40.9%), including those examined up to 120 days after burial. The findings highlight the medico-legal significance of exhumation autopsy while emphasising the need for timely primary autopsy to preserve critical forensic evidence and prevent avoidable exhumations. However, the major limitation of the present study is its small sample size ( n = 22), which prevents generalizability of the findings.
Identification of an individual plays a critical role in scenarios involving mass disasters, missing persons, and unidentified bodies. Various factors such as race, sex, stature, and age are key parameters considered during the identification process. Among these factors, estimating stature stands out as a crucial element in the overall identification process. Here, we conducted a study in a tertiary care center in South India that was dedicated to formulating a standardized method for determining stature in patients. The study focused on utilizing the length of the first metatarsal from radiographic images as a key indicator for accurately estimating stature. Utilizing the advanced digital X-ray equipment available at the hospital, we meticulously measured the length of the first metatarsal in either foot of a sample consisting of 161 individuals. Through a detailed analysis of the data collected, the researchers discovered a more pronounced relationship between stature and the length of the first metatarsal in females compared to males. The study’s outcomes led to the formulation of regression equations specifically for this demographic group. For males, the regression equation was computed as H = 134.8 + 4.8 M1, while for females, it was determined as H = 133.4 + 3.86 M1. These significant findings highlight the practicality of utilizing the regression equations derived from this study to estimate stature within the South Indian population. The regression equation established through this research offers a dependable and precise approach for determining stature in this specific demographic group by solely considering the length of the first metatarsal bone.
Argemone mexicana (Mexican prickly poppy) is a hardy plant widely distributed in arid and disturbed landscapes. It has long been valued in traditional medicine across Asia, Africa, and the Americas, while also playing an important ecological role. However, its toxic potential, particularly in relation to epidemic dropsy, raises significant public health and forensic concerns. A comprehensive narrative review was conducted using published literature. A. mexicana contributes to soil stabilization, erosion control, and pollinator support. Ethnomedicinal practices report its use in dermatological, gastrointestinal, respiratory, hepatic, and inflammatory disorders. Scientific studies confirm diverse activities, including antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, antidiabetic, anticancer, and antiviral effects, largely attributed to isoquinoline alkaloids. Conversely, toxic alkaloids such as sanguinarine are implicated in epidemic dropsy, with characteristic forensic and autopsy findings and global public health implications. A. mexicana represents a dual entity—an ecologically valuable and pharmacologically promising plant with serious toxicological risks. Sustainable conservation, rigorous scientific validation, strict regulatory control, and forensic vigilance are essential to safely harness its therapeutic potential while protecting public health.
Forensic anthropology is integral to medico-legal investigations involving skeletal, decomposed, and fragmentary human remains. In India, despite increasing case requirements, forensic anthropology largely functions without dedicated institutional units. This article reviews the status of forensic anthropology practice in India and proposes a feasible implementation framework for establishing forensic anthropology units within Indian medical colleges. This article discusses the challenges in the establishment of a forensic anthropology unit in Indian medical colleges. Dedicated forensic anthropology units can be established within existing forensic medicine departments using modest infrastructure, basic anthropometric instruments, trained faculty, and interdepartmental collaboration. Institution-based forensic anthropology units are feasible, cost-effective, and essential for strengthening medico-legal services, training, and research in India.
Understanding the learning styles of medical students is essential for effective education. The VARK questionnaire categorizes preferences into visual, auditory, read/write, and kinesthetic modalities. A cross-sectional study was conducted at Dr SS Tantia Medical College, Rajasthan, in 2024. The VARK questionnaire was administered to 450 MBBS students, with 398 complete responses analyzed for learning style preferences, gender, and academic year. Visual learning was the most common style (35.18%), followed by auditory (27.64%), read/write (26.13%), and kinesthetic (11.06%). Learning preferences varied significantly across academic years, with a higher visual preference in later years. Gender differences were noted but not statistically significant. Medical students exhibit diverse learning styles, with significant variations by academic year. These findings highlight the need for adaptive teaching strategies to cater to different learning preferences and improve educational outcomes. Future research should examine the effectiveness of tailored instructional methods.
This study investigated the socio-demographic characteristics and anatomical patterns of abdominal injuries among victims of road traffic accidents (RTAs) in Nairobi, Kenya, using autopsy findings. Conducted at Nairobi City Mortuary over a one-year period (July 2009–June 2010), the study examined 2,278 cases of violent deaths. Of these, 474 cases (20.8%) involved abdominal injuries, with 104 cases (21.9%) attributed to RTAs. The majority of victims were young adults, with a mean age of 29.04 years (range 12–59), and the most affected age group being 30–39 years. Males were disproportionately affected, accounting for 84.6% of cases, resulting in a male-to-female ratio of 5.5:1. Pedestrians constituted the largest proportion of victims (37.5%), followed by bicyclists (14.4%), highlighting their vulnerability in traffic environments. A total of 340 abdominal injuries were identified among the RTA victims. The most frequently injured structures included the liver (15.9%), lumbar vertebrae (15.9%), intestines (15.3%), stomach (14.7%), and abdominal aorta (14.1%). These findings demonstrate that abdominal trauma from RTAs commonly involves solid organs, hollow viscera, vascular structures, and skeletal components. The study concludes that RTAs are a major contributor to fatal abdominal injuries in Kenya, particularly among young male pedestrians and cyclists. It underscores the need for comprehensive autopsy evaluation of all abdominal structures and calls for targeted road safety interventions, improved infrastructure, and policies aimed at protecting vulnerable road users to reduce mortality and injury burden.
An abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) is a potentially fatal vascular condition that often remains asymptomatic until rupture. Incidence of AAA remains higher among the elderly population, with smoking, hypertension, atherosclerosis and old age being the prominent risk factors. This disease tends to occur predominantly in males, but there are cases involving females. A 56-year-old female presented with the sudden onset of back pain and breathlessness and was declared dead shortly after hospital admission. Autopsy revealed a giant AAA measuring 17 × 9 cm with rupture and retroperitoneal haemorrhage. AAAs are established as one of the major catastrophes in older age group individuals and are found in 4%–7% of males and 1% of females aged 50 and above. As per the available literature, the present case appears to be very unusual in nature, considering the fact that it is more prevalent in males and rupture of the abdominal aorta is present only in 10% cases. A giant abdominal aneurysm amounts to a very rare entity. This case highlights the importance of early detection of AAA, especially in patients presenting with nonspecific symptoms such as abdominal or back pain.
This empirical study investigates the pedagogical experiences of expatriate South Asian faculty teaching forensic medicine and science within Saudi Arabian medical colleges. This study holds particular relevance for Indian forensic educators, as Indian faculty constitute a significant portion of this expatriate cohort, and their experiences abroad offer critical insights for pedagogical reform within India. Utilizing a mixed-methods approach, data were collected via an online survey ( n = 87) and semi-structured interviews ( n = 15) with faculty from India, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka employed across seven major Saudi universities. Quantitative data from faculty surveys and qualitative thematic analysis of interview transcripts were triangulated with a content analysis of official curriculum documents from three participating colleges. Key barriers identified included: significant curricular dissonance ( χ ² = 34.21, p < .001), with 78% of faculty reporting a mismatch between the applied South Asian model and the foundational Saudi approach; linguistic challenges, where 82% cited student English proficiency as a major hurdle; and profound cultural-religious sensitivities, particularly regarding autopsy instruction (rated as “highly sensitive” by 94% of respondents). Beneficially, 89% reported high student respect and motivation, and 76% acknowledged superior access to simulation technology. The institutional website analysis revealed a 43% deficiency in culturally-adapted forensic teaching resources. The study concludes that successful knowledge transfer requires structured faculty development in cultural-pedagogical translation and the systematic creation of context-sensitive, case-based teaching materials. For Indian institutions, these findings underscore the urgent need to develop similar culturally-attuned resources, particularly for a diverse, multi-religious student body, and to formally recognize the pedagogical adaptation skills that Indian faculty are already developing through international experience.
Estimation of stature and sex from footprints is an important aspect of forensic identification, especially in cases involving mutilated remains and mass disasters. Footprints are easily obtainable and provide valuable anthropometric data. Population-specific standards are necessary due to regional and ethnic variations. To assess the relationship between bilateral footprint lengths and stature, evaluate metatarsal width for sex determination, and formulate sex-specific regression equations for stature estimation in the Telangana population. A cross-sectional study was conducted at Malla Reddy Institute of Medical Sciences, Hyderabad, from December 2022 to October 2024. The study included 150 healthy participants (75 males and 75 females) aged 16–25 years. Inked footprints were recorded on A4-sized sheets, and measurements from the heel to each toe were taken using a vernier caliper. Stature was measured with a stadiometer, and metatarsal width was recorded. Statistical analysis included correlation and linear regression analysis, performed separately for males and females. A statistically significant positive correlation was observed between footprint length and stature in both sexes. The coefficient of determination ( R ²) ranged from 0.123 to 0.642, indicating good predictive accuracy. The 95% confidence intervals for regression coefficients ranged from 2.0 to 4.2, with a mean estimation error within ±3 cm. Metatarsal width exhibited significant sexual dimorphism ( p < .001), with males showing a higher mean width (9.056 cm) compared to females (8.243 cm). Footprint length and metatarsal width are reliable anthropometric parameters for stature estimation and sex determination. The sex-specific regression equations derived in this study provide useful population-specific tools for forensic identification in medico-legal investigations and disaster victim identification.
Renal toxicity is a frequent and often fatal complication of snake envenomation. This cross-sectional study aimed to characterize the renal pathological changes in 47 fatal snakebite cases subjected to autopsy at the Institute of Forensic Medicine, Madras Medical College, between 2017 and 2019. Kidney tissues were collected, processed, and H&E-stained for light microscopic examination. The analysis revealed that renal congestion was the most prevalent finding, occurring in 41 cases (87.23%), followed closely by acute tubular necrosis (ATN) in 35 cases (74.46%). Other significant observations included glomerular inflammation in 12 cases and renal cortical necrosis in one instance. These results demonstrate that snakebite nephropathy encompasses a diverse spectrum of pathological alterations, primarily driven by direct venom toxicity and secondary hemodynamic changes. Understanding these specific renal manifestations—ranging from interstitial nephritis to irreversible cortical necrosis—is essential for clinicians in managing acute kidney injury and for forensic experts in framing precise medico-legal opinions regarding the cause of death in envenomation cases.
Any unnatural death among children is a worrying issue in any society. The present study describes the profile of unnatural deaths in children at a tertiary care hospital in Northern Haryana, India. This retrospective study evaluated 48 autopsy cases from January 2019 to December 2023 of unnatural deaths among various age groups from infants to 18 years of age. The postmortem examination reports, police inquests, and other available hospital and investigation records were used for data collection. Male predominance was observed with 33 (68.7%) cases. According to age group (in years), most deaths, 19 (39.6%), were observed in 16–18, followed by 13 (27.1%) deaths in 13–15, and the least, two (4.2%) in 10–12. The frequent manner of death was accidental deaths, 36 (75%), and the remaining were suicides, 12 (25%) deaths. No homicidal deaths were found among the children in this study. Road traffic accidents, 13 (27%) deaths, followed by nine (18.8%) deaths due to drowning, and eight (16.7%) deaths due to hanging were the major modes of these deaths. The major cause of death was asphyxia in 18 (37.5%), followed by head injury in 13 (27%). This study highlights significant patterns of unnatural child deaths according to their modes, manner, and causes. To reflect upon the magnitude of the occurrence of unnatural child deaths, maintenance of the medicolegal case register and further studies to determine the pattern of child deaths in other regions of India is essential.
Drug-facilitated sexual assault (DFSA) is a serious global forensic and public health concern in which victims are incapacitated through the covert administration of psychoactive substances. Timely and reliable identification of these drugs is essential for forensic investigation and legal prosecution. This narrative review summarizes traditional and emerging analytical techniques used for detecting drugs associated with DFSA. A total of approximately 60 peer-reviewed studies published in major scientific databases, including PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science, were reviewed to evaluate current forensic detection approaches. Conventional analytical techniques such as gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS), liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS), and capillary electrophoresis remain the gold standard for identifying DFSA drugs in biological matrices. Recent advances in sensing technologies, including microfluidic devices, biosensors, and nanomaterial-based assays, have improved the speed, sensitivity, and portability of drug detection methods. These innovations show potential for rapid on-site screening in forensic investigations. Strengthening analytical capabilities and awareness of DFSA can improve evidence collection, support prosecution, and enhance protection for victims. This review was not registered in the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO) database.
Drowning is one of the most significant causes of unintentional death in developing countries and also one of the most grave causes of concern globally about injury-related fatalities in all autopsy cases. Drowning is a preventable cause of death and in recent times, the fatalities in drowning cases have been decreased due to community education, safety training and standard treatment protocols. The present cross-sectional retrospective study was conducted for four years from 2015 to 2019 in the Department of FMT at LSLAM Government Medical College, Raigarh, Chhattisgarh, to know the pattern of drowning cases with the distribution of cases according to year, season and activity of victims in all age groups and both sexes. In our study, out of a total of 2,244 autopsy cases, 3.61% of cases were of drowning. The maximum number of cases occurred in the rainy season, which is 41.98%. The maximum number of victims were males (74.07%), followed by females (25.93%) and the most commonly affected age group belongs to 21–30 years in 23.46% of cases. Maximum death occurred in ponds (32 cases, 39.51%), followed by rivers and dams. Most of the victims, that is 53.09%, were taking baths and in most cases (i.e., 58.02%), no significant history of the deceased was found. In our study, the maximum victims were identified (92.59%). About 25% of total drowning cases were found in the decomposed state. Accidental drowning cases are largely preventable, therefore by promoting educational awareness and training, swimming preferably in safe places under the observation of known and skilled persons may reduce the fatalities in drowning cases.
Sudden deaths are the leading cause of mortality all over the world. Sudden death is defined as “death within 24 hours from the onset of the symptoms” by the World Health Organization (WHO). When sudden death is caused entirely due to disease, it is termed sudden natural death (SND). The pattern of sudden death may vary from country to country, but the outcome is worrying, not only for developing countries but also for developed ones. The present prospective study was designed to study the pattern of SNDs which involves cases subjected to medico-legal autopsy in a tertiary care hospital for a period of 36 months. Detailed history and autopsy findings were entered into a structured proforma, and results were tabulated and analyzed using frequency and percentage. SNDs accounted for 13.3% (700 cases) of the total 5,260 medico-legal autopsies, and the age group most affected ranged from 31 to 50 years. Males accounted for 85.1% of cases, while 65.1% (456) of cases had a history of smoking and 69.8% (489) had alcohol consumption. The majority of the SNDs belonged to the lower middle class (40.8%). Most deaths were associated with diseases of the cardiovascular system, 385 (55%), followed by the respiratory system, 182 (26%). SNDs accounted for 13.3% of total autopsies, and males outnumbered females (M:F ratio of 5.7:1). Most (53.7%) cases belonged to the 31–50 years age group. Most of the SNDs were due to cardiovascular diseases, followed by respiratory diseases. Smoking and alcohol intake showed a strong correlation.
