The voluntary carbon market (VCM) plays an increasingly important role in financing forest-based climate mitigation. However, the viability of this mechanism relies on project outcomes being commensurated into a single carbon metric (tCO₂e), which can obscure other social and environmental dimensions and, if neglected, lead to harm. Yet the evaluation of forest carbon projects’ provisions to ensure baseline environmental and social safeguards remains incomprehensive and fragmented. This limits market transparency and the ability to empirically assess whether safeguard provisions influence market behavior. To address this gap, this study develops a universal safeguard assessment framework composed of four overarching dimensions: Social, Environmental, Economic, and Governance, further broken down into 14 specific criteria. Applying this framework to Verra-registered forest projects, each project’s safeguard provision is measured quantitively from publicly available project documentation. These safeguard scores are then linked with transaction-level data to examine whether stronger safeguard provisions are associated with shorter trading life, which is the time from credit issuance to retirement, taken as a proxy for market uptake. Overall, we find little evidence that the market consistently rewards stronger safeguards. Signs of faster credit retirement appear only in better-measured segments, suggesting any reward is segment-specific rather than market-wide. These findings highlight the importance of improving VCM infrastructure with more transparent and comparable disclosures, standardized safeguard criteria, and credible safeguard rating or label. These improvements would facilitate more reliable market analyses and help align market incentives with high-integrity climate action
Reliable transfer of individual-tree stem-volume equations requires validation at the spatial and hierarchical levels where they will be applied. We evaluated 221 destructively sampled Pinus patula trees from 30 stands in three sampled plantation areas of the northern Peruvian Andes: Amazonas, Granja Porcón, and Chota. Three common tree-level equations without stand covariates and 33 stand-augmented variants were fitted by joint Gaussian maximum likelihood under constant, DBH-power and predicted-volume-power residual standard-deviation functions. Leave-one-zone-out (LOZO) validation omitted one entire sampled area, whereas leave-one-stand-out (LOSO) validation predicted a new stand within the represented areas. Under apparent LOZO, the density-augmented Spurr equation (M2.N) reduced unit-weighted RMSE% from 25.31% to 21.03%; however, only three areas were available and area-specific bias persisted. Under apparent LOSO, M2.N did not reduce mean RMSE% (14.32% for local M2 versus 14.36% for M2.N), won 15 of 30 folds, and did not show a significant paired improvement. Nested LOSO selected local M2 in all 30 outer folds, whereas M1.HD was selected for the DBH-only family, although uncertainty in its mean gain included zero. Accordingly, local M2 is the parsimonious operational reference within the sampled domain. M2.N is a promising candidate for cross-area transfer when current density is available but requires validation in independent plantation areas before broader use.
Faidherbia albida, commonly known as the Apple Ring Acacia, is a nitrogen-fixing tree valued for its ecological, livelihood, and cultural functions in African dryland agroforestry systems. Despite its importance, limited research has examined how smallholder farmers perceive, value, and manage this species within local socio-ecological contexts. Rather than presenting Faidherbia albida as a stand-alone solution to land degradation, this qualitative interpretive case study examines how Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) informs the local operationalization of Nature-Based Solutions (NbS) and Farmer-Managed Natural Regeneration (FMNR) in northern Ghana. A qualitative interpretive design involving semi-structured interviews with 30 purposively selected smallholder farmers across three districts was employed. Interview data were analyzed thematically to identify interconnected ecological, livelihood, cultural, and management dimensions of farmers’ knowledge. The findings indicate that farmers perceive Faidherbia albida as a multifunctional agroforestry species that improves soil fertility, enhances crop productivity, and provides critical livestock fodder during the dry season. The tree’s reverse phenology allows crops to grow beneath its canopy with minimal competition while enriching soils through decomposing leaf litter. Farmers also emphasized its cultural and spiritual significance, with customary beliefs reinforcing conservation and sustainable management. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that farmers perceive Faidherbia albida as a bioculturally significant facilitating species supporting agroforestry, climate adaptation, landscape restoration, and resilient rural livelihoods through locally grounded nature-based solutions rather than as an isolated environmental solution.
This study presents an integrated assessment of forest biomass, carbon storage, oxygen production, and the economic value of regulating ecosystem services in the Hyrcanian forests of northern Iran. Field inventory data were collected from 120 sample plots (500 m² each) distributed across nine forest types. Biomass was estimated using four complementary approaches: a volume-based model, species-specific allometric equations, the global pantropical model, and an artificial neural network. Biomass estimates were converted to carbon stocks, CO2 equivalents, and oxygen production using established stoichiometric relationships and carbon fraction coefficients. Economic valuation was conducted using the replacement cost method for oxygen production and the social cost of carbon approach for carbon storage. The results showed substantial variation among forest types. Mature Fagus orientalis stands had the highest biomass values (781.3-1,052.6 t ha−1), whereas plantation forests had the lowest values (92.2-159.9 t ha−1). The species-specific allometric model produced the highest biomass estimates, while the volume-based and artificial neural network approaches yielded closely comparable results (R² = 0.9964). Estimated carbon stocks ranged from 43.3 to 494.7 t C ha−1, corresponding to 159.0-1,815.3 t CO2e ha−1. The estimated stock-based economic value of oxygen production and carbon storage across the Darabkola forest ecosystem ranged from US$578 million to US$785 million, depending on the biomass estimation method applied. The findings demonstrate that mature natural forests provide substantially greater climate-regulation services than plantation forests and highlight the strong influence of biomass estimation methods on ecosystem-service valuation. The close agreement between artificial neural network and traditional volume-based approaches indicates that machine-learning methods can provide reliable support for biomass estimation and economic assessment. This study provides a field-based framework for linking forest structure, biomass estimation, carbon assessment, and economic valuation to support forest management, natural capital accounting, and ecosystem-service evaluation. The findings further indicate that the choice of biomass estimation method can generate differences of up to US$200 million in the economic valuation of regulating ecosystem services within the same forest, highlighting an important implication for ecosystem-service valuation.
Many current management approaches in temperate European forests aim to promote forest structural complexity. Yet, the dynamics of three-dimensional forest structure under different silvicultural systems and their impacts on forest microclimate remain unexplored. Here, we quantified the temporal dynamics of forest structural complexity in differently managed and unmanaged European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) forests (n=100) over nine years by using terrestrial laser scanning (TLS)-derived measures. We then tested whether changes in forest structural complexity are driven by forest management intensity and if the observed changes in three-dimensional forest structure drive changes in forest microclimate, quantified by the diurnal temperature range (DTR). Overall, we observed a net increase in forest structural complexity of 24.76% across all forest management systems and developmental stages. We found a delayed but positive effect of harvested basal area on forest structural complexity change, which we attributed to improved growing conditions for under- and midstory trees following silvicultural interventions. Compared to the managed forests, unmanaged forests showed little changes in forest structural complexity due to the absence of harvesting or natural disturbances. Ultimately, we observed that the dynamics of three-dimensional forest structure trigger changes in DTR, whereby the effect size was small in comparison with the effect of weather conditions. We conclude that silvicultural interventions accelerate the structural dynamics in European beech forests and may promote the development of complex forest structures in the long term. While these management-related changes in three-dimensional forest structure also lead to changes in DTR, their relevance for mediating DTR is relatively small compared to macroclimate changes.
Tropical forest landscapes provide a variety of ecosystem services, particularly climate regulation through carbon storage: conversely, they are threatened by logging, resource extraction, and agricultural expansion. These pressures create landscape gradients ranging from core forests to forest agriculture mosaics, while simultaneously also shaping livelihood opportunities that extend beyond natural resource extraction. Understanding how livelihood strategies interact with forest carbon storage and regrowth is, therefore, critical for designing effective conservation and restoration strategies. We analyzed 34 smallholder-dominated tropical landscapes in Zambia, Ecuador, and the Philippines across diverse forest transition contexts. Aboveground carbon from 508 forest inventory plots was scaled to the landscape level and related to forest, agricultural, and non-farm income from 3411 households. Total aboveground carbon was sensitive to small changes in total smallholder income, whereas agricultural income was generally associated with lower forest carbon stocks, though this relationship varied across countries. Non-farm income was associated with the maintenance of existing carbon stocks but appeared to constrain regrowth carbon. Forest income was positively related to both total and regrowth carbon, but only in forest agriculture mosaic landscapes. Overall, variation in total carbon stocks was more strongly country-specific, suggesting the importance of national policy contexts for carbon conservation. In contrast, forest carbon recovery was sensitive to the landscape context, indicating the need for locally adapted restoration strategies. We discuss the findings with implications for restoration and REDD+ strategies. We argue for strengthened protected areas and land-use zonifiaction combined with alternative income to reduce pressure in high forest landscapes, and financial incentives and improved value chains to encourage reforestation in forest agriculture landscapes.
Maximum stand density is an important component of forest growth and yield (G&Y) modeling systems, simulating competition-induced mortality as a driving factor in diameter and height growth. In practice, the maximum stand density index (SDImax), defined as the maximum stand density at a reference quadratic mean diameter of 25.4 cm (10 in.), provides a standardized measure for comparing stand density among populations. Updated estimates of SDImax can improve the reliability of forest growth and yield projection. The objective of this study was to estimate maximum stand density for planted loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) using three culture-by-density (CD) studies in the southeastern US: Lower Coastal Plain (CPCD), Upper Coastal Plain and Piedmont (UPCD), and Western Gulf (WGCD). Results showed that the overall SDImax was 1036 trees/ha (419 trees/ac). Among the three studies, UPCD exhibited the highest SDImax at 1074 trees/ha (435 trees/ac), followed by CPCD at 1051 trees/ha (425 trees/ac) and WGCD at 1013 trees/ha (410 trees/ac). The lowest-density treatment yields the lowest SDImax, whereas similar estimates of SDImax were observed among the remaining planting-density treatments for a given management intensity and region. Differences between management intensities were less noticeable compared to those among planting-density treatments.
Urban green spaces are increasingly expected to support municipal carbon mitigation, yet species-level evidence remains scarce for high-altitude cold cities. We quantified seasonal net photosynthetic rate (Pₙ) and estimated growing-season canopy CO₂ assimilation potential for 106 commonly planted urban woody species (58 trees and 48 shrubs) across sixteen urban green-space sites in Xining, China (2,261 m a.s.l.), during the 2025 growing season (May–October). Monthly diurnal Pₙ measurements were integrated with total leaf area estimates derived from field structural measurements, i-Tree Eco leaf-area parameters and shrub-specific allometric models. Across species, mean Pₙ generally followed a unimodal seasonal pattern, peaking in July at 9.49 ± 0.21 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹, with lower rates in spring and autumn. Estimated growing-season canopy CO₂ assimilation potential varied strongly among taxa and life forms. Ulmus pumila reached the highest value among trees (146.48 ± 33.71 CO₂ yr⁻¹), followed by Populus alba and Populus cathayana, whereas Hippophae rhamnoides ranked highest among shrubs (0.852 ± 0.152 kg CO₂ yr⁻¹), followed by Elaeagnus angustifolia and Ligustrum sinense. Deciduous broad-leaved species generally outperformed evergreen conifers, suggesting that high peak-season assimilation and large leaf area can outweigh longer leaf retention under a short growing season. Clustering grouped trees and shrubs into five performance classes, supporting site-specific planting templates for parks, roads and residential spaces that couple carbon performance with air-quality, thermal-comfort and amenity co-benefits. These results provide a one-growing-season screening baseline for carbon-efficient urban woody plant selection in Xining, pending multi-year monitoring, leaf-area validation and life-cycle carbon accounting.
Urban forest remnants are biodiversity hotspots in cities and refuges for plants specialised on forest habitats. However, they are exposed to a variety of anthropogenic influences including isolation, fragmentation and high densities of neophytes. For an adequate management of these sites, it is essential to understand the effects of local environmental factors and the surrounding landscape configuration on forest plant communities. So far, studies on plant communities in urban woodlands are scarce and mainly focus on selected groups, such as forest specialists or neophytes. Further, they are predominantly based on vegetation plots, often underrepresenting disturbed sites like forest edges or trails. Here, we investigated the entire flora of 19 forest remnants with long habitat continuity in a highly urbanised metropolitan region in Germany. We applied multivariate statistical models to identify the relevant local and landscape variables driving the species number of the entire vascular plant communities, indigenous versus neophytic species and four groups with different affinities for forest habitats. Patch area was a significant predictor of the species number in each model. Species with high restriction to forest were additionally related to the average canopy cover and species with medium restriction were positively affected by adjacent woodland. Plants with low forest affinity and neophytes were positively influenced by built-up areas. We suggest that management strategies should include local measures like reducing the path network and removing garden waste, as well as optimising the surrounding landscape configuration through maintenance of connective elements and reduction of exotic plants in adjacent settlements.
Indigenous ethnomedicinal knowledge continues to play an important role in community healthcare and cultural traditions, yet it is increasingly vulnerable to erosion and has rarely been quantified for the Suku Anak Dalam (SAD). This study documented medicinal plant use among Suku Anak Dalam (SAD) in Nebang Parah and Nyogan Hamlets, Jambi, Indonesia, and quantified it using reproducible ethnobotanical indices. Data were collected from May to July 2025 through semi-structured interviews, participant observation and voucher-specimen collection involving 100 informants (66 Nyogan, 34 Nebang Parah; 53 men, 47 women; five key and 95 general informants,), yielding 363 plant-part use-reports. Twenty-seven species from 22 families were recorded. Eight preparation methods and seven administration routes were documented, with decoction (12 of 27 taxa) and oral administration (13 of 27 taxa) most frequent. Leaves were the most-used part (PPV = 35.81%), then fruit (19.28%) and sap (12.12%). The Relative Frequency of Citation was highest for Adina eurhyncha (0.20) and ICF was high across disease categories (0.73-0.97), indicating strong agreement among informants. Index of Cultural Significance values (medicinal use domain) ranged from 6 to 30 and were highest for Senna alata (L.) Roxb. (30). The study provides a reproducible, internally consistent baseline of SAD ethnomedicinal knowledge for future ethnobotanica, pharmacological and conservation research; they do not constitute evidence of clinical efficacy, safety or harvesting sustainability.
Traditional medicinal plants and wild edible plants (WEPs) are invaluable resources for semi-pastoral communities. They serve various purposes, including medicinal use, enhancing food security by supplementing staple diets, generating income, and providing ecological and socio-cultural benefits. This study aimed to assess the traditional medicinal and WEPs, along with the local knowledge associated with them, among the semi-pastoralist people in the Amibara District of the Afar Regional State. Data were collected from 156 informants across six kebeles using ethnobotanical data collection methods. A total of 33 vascular plant species were recorded in the study area, belonging to 28 genera and 21 families. Among these, 17 species were identified as medicinal plants, 12 were WEPs, and four as nutraceutical species. Key species such as Balanites aegyptiaca, Balanites rotundifolia, Boscia coriacea, and Ziziphus spina-christi provide vital medicinal benefits and contribute to food security in the district. Shrubs were the most commonly found growth habit (58%). In medicinal plant use, leaves were the most frequently used part, accounting for 52% of all uses, primarily administered orally (48.5%). For WEPs, fruits were the most commonly consumed part, accounting for 65% of use. The study found that local knowledge is at risk due to factors such as modernization and industrialization. It underscores the importance of these plants for local healthcare and food security and calls for conservation efforts to protect the plants and the local knowledge associated with them. Special attention needs to be given to vulnerable species (Bourreria orbicularis), endemic species (Aloe camperi), and multipurpose species.
Climate shifts exert pronounced influence on the northeastern Tibetan Plateau, where forest ecosystems play a pivotal role in sustaining ecological equilibrium at both local and global scales. However, knowledge of how soil microbial communities are structured and function across the varied forest types in this region is still notably incomplete. This study investigated five contrasting forest types across the northeastern Tibetan Plateau to characterize the community structure, functional divergence, and environmental drivers shaping keystone bacterial and fungal lineages in the soil. The key findings are summarized below. (1) Soil physical properties significantly constrained the bacterial species diversity index, whereas they exerted no discernible effect on the fungal species diversity index. (2) Soil nutrient availability markedly enhanced the bacterial species diversity index and functional diversity index, yet exhibited minimal impact on those of fungi. (3) Conversely, soil enzyme activities suppressed the bacterial species diversity index and functional diversity index, but significantly promoted the functional diversity index of soil fungi. (4) Specific driver analysis revealed that soil water content (SWC), ammonium nitrogen (NH4+-N), available phosphorus (AP), and soil urease (S-UE) interactively regulated the bacterial species diversity and functional diversity indices, whereas S-UE emerged as the singular key driver governing the fungal functional diversity index. This study advances our mechanistic understanding of how environmental factors drive the distinct diversity patterns and functional capacities of soil microbiota in high-altitude forest ecosystems.
Tree lines by fences, are abundant in regions dominated by small-scale farming and play an important role in connecting fragmented ecosystems. We investigated the patterns of species composition along fence tree lines by: (1) characterizing their functional traits; (2) assessing trait plasticity; (3) evaluating the proportion of ecological groups of these communities; and (4) analyzing their leaf-nutrient composition. We found functional syndrome in fence's tree lines resembling those of forest-edge communities and partial intraspecific trait plasticity. Tree species co-occurring in both systems, fences and forests, had similar functional adaptations to those exclusive to fences. We found fences and forests with a similar proportion of species in the different successional groups. Traits found in trees’ fences indicate adaptations to a more stressful environment (e.g.: high light availability, surrounding agricultural matrix, extreme climatic conditions of temperature and wind, and frequent fires). Therefore, communities present in fences show species composition and functional plasticity associated with harsh environments. Our findings support future research on tree lines by fences and provide a basis for conservation of those elements, that have declined over recent years. This article highlights the importance of maintaining fences within agricultural landscapes to support biodiversity.
Agroforestry systems support sustainable land use, climate protection, biodiversity, and long-term productivity, yet adoption in Germany remains limited. This study investigates German farmers' perceptions of agroforestry, identifies the factors influencing agroforestry adoption and adoption intensity, and explores farmers' preferences for different attributes of agroforestry systems. Based on a cross-sectional online survey and a discrete choice experiment, we employ a double-hurdle model and a mixed logit model for the analyses. Results indicate that 24 % of the surveyed farmers have adopted agroforestry, and 23 % of all respondents intend to establish a new agroforestry system within the next five years. Both adopters and non-adopters recognize the ecosystem services provided by agroforestry, although adopters view the economic and ecological impacts more positively. Adoption probability increases with age, organic farming, livestock holding, and grassland cultivation, whereas more leased land and longer farming experience reduce the adoption probability. Adoption intensity is positively influenced by the perceived economic benefits, and negatively associated with organic farming, higher education, and grassland cultivation. Farmers reveal preferences for lower tree densities, while payments of up to 400 €/ha per year have no significant influence on their choices. Moreover, the qualitative responses suggest that farmers favor unlimited land-use reconvertibility. The findings provide exploratory but policy-relevant insights, including the need to strengthen knowledge transfer through networks and demonstration sites, address challenges related to land-use rights, restructure supply chains, and design more attractive and flexible funding instruments. Overall, the study highlights the importance of strengthening economic awareness, institutional support, and tailored incentives to foster wider agroforestry adoption in Germany.
Documenting the traditional knowledge and practices (TKP) related to the use and management of natural resources is central to ethnobiology. This study lists the native palm species and associated TKP in a multicultural area in the Republic of Benin. It tests how TKP on native palms varies across ethnic groups and provides ideas to contribute to their conservation and sustainable use. In total, 87 focus groups and 1244 interviews were realized in 239 sites across 38 municipalities, 9 departments and three phytogeographical zones. Data on palm species, uses, threats and conservation practices were analysed with quantitative ethnobotanical tools. Regression models identified socioeconomic drivers of traditional knowledge, and Principal Component Analysis highlighted ethnic variations in palm use. In total, 12 native palms were documented, including the severely threatened Hyphaene guineensis Schumach. & Thonn. reported here for the first time in Benin. Altogether, 246 use-reports were recorded in six use-categories (artisanal, cosmetic, firewood, food, magic, and medicinal). The ethnic group and education level significantly affected TKP, with the Fon group and illiterate respondents as the main craftsmen, reporting the most diseases treated by palm derivatives. Overharvesting, agricultural expansion, human-induced fire, sand quarrying, and urbanization are the main threats to palm stands in Benin. We recommend establishing palm nurseries to implement both in-situ and ex-situ conservation strategies, integrating palm species into agroforestry systems, community-managed reserves, and educational landscapes such as botanical gardens and school-based green spaces.
The Alto Mayo Valley, in the San Martín region, is one of the main specialty coffee-producing areas in the Peruvian Amazon, renowned for the high quality of its beans and for cultivation under agroforestry systems. However, there is limited information on the tree species present in these systems, which hinders the understanding of their ecological and productive importance. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate the diversity and composition of tree species in these systems. Thirty-eight plots were selected, distributed across the provinces of Rioja (15) and Moyobamba (23), the latter having the largest coffee-growing area. Within each plot, a 50 m x 20 m (0.1 ha) subplot was established, where all individuals with a diameter at breast height (DBH) >10 cm were inventoried, and the composition, structure of the vegetation, and tree diversity were evaluated. In total, 882 trees were recorded, belonging to 39 families, 67 genera, and 86 species. Fabaceae and Lauraceae were the most abundant families, with 286 individuals (32%) and 87 individuals (9%), respectively. The most ecologically important species was Inga edulis Mart., both in Rioja (39.90%) and Moyobamba (41.58%). Tree diversity was intermediate and similar across provinces (Shannon ≈ 1.7; Margalef ≈ 2.2; Simpson 0.24–0.30), with high dissimilarity (Jaccard = 62%). The composition included fruit, timber, and multipurpose species, with selection geared toward utilization. Tree structure was dominated by small diameters and intermediate heights. The results show how management decisions influence the diversity and composition of trees in specialty coffee agroforestry systems.
Community-based forest management is recognized for its contribution to biodiversity conservation and the provision of ecosystem services that sustain local livelihoods. This study advances sustainable community forest management by systematically evaluating ecological characteristics and ecosystem services relevant to livelihoods and climate change mitigation. Sixty-six sampling plots were established within the Ban Na Ngam Community Forest. Species composition and diversity were assessed using the importance value index (IVI) and diversity indices. Biomass was estimated through allometric equations, and carbon stocks were subsequently calculated. The social and economic values of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) were also evaluated using semi-structured interviews with 70 residents. The forest is classified as a secondary deciduous dipterocarp forest, with 85 woody species from 34 families identified. Based on the highest IVI, Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Cratoxylum cochinchinense, and Sindora siamensis were identified as ecologically significant at the tree, sapling, and seedling stages, respectively. The Shannon diversity index reached a maximum value of 3.43 at the tree stage. Total biomass and carbon stock were 117.64 tons ha-1 and 55.29 tons C ha-1, respectively. Harvesting activities yielded 107 plant, mushroom, and animal species providing NTFPs. The five most culturally significant plant species, as determined by the cultural importance index (CI), were Curcuma parviflora, Amorphophallus macrophyllus, Cratoxylum formosum, Curcuma angustifolia, and Albizia procera. Among mushroom species, Amanita spp. and Termitomyces spp. were particularly prominent. Two animal species, Oecophylla smaragdina and Apis sp., were also utilized. The total net income from NTFPs was estimated at USD 14,787.65 per year for the community. These findings provide comprehensive insights into ecological conditions and the socio-economic functions of community forest resources, thereby supporting the development of a master plan for their sustainable use and conservation.
Eucalyptus globulus (E. globulus) is one of the most widely cultivated forest tree species globally, valued for its rapid growth, adaptability, economic importance, and diverse ecosystem services. In contrast to previously published literature that typically focused on either medicinal attributes or silvicultural aspects of E. globulus, this review provides a multidisciplinary synthesis via integrating the human health benefits, ecosystem services, socioeconomic contributions, ecological trade-offs, and sustainability challenges within a unified framework. The species contains a wide range of bioactive phytochemicals and essential oils, particularly 1,8-cineole, which have demonstrated antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antidiabetic activities. Along with the available evidence, limitations and knowledge gaps like limited toxicological data, insufficient clinical validation, underexplored pharmacokinetic parameters, and standardization are evaluated critically. Consequently, despite encouraging preclinical findings, these challenges restrict broader therapeutic translation of E. globulus. Beyond its medicinal relevance, E. globulus plays a significant role in forest-based bioeconomies through timber, pulpwood, fuelwood, essential oil production, and livelihood generation. The species contributes to carbon sequestration, land restoration, biomass production, and climate change mitigation, while supporting rural development and employment opportunities in many regions. Nevertheless, large-scale plantations may also generate ecological trade-offs, including impacts on biodiversity, water resources, soil quality, fire regimes, and ecosystem functioning. These effects are highly context-dependent and influenced by local environmental conditions, land-use history, and plantation management practices. This review highlights the need for balanced and evidence-based approaches to the cultivation and utilization of E. globulus, emphasizing sustainable forest management, mixed-species plantation strategies, and site-specific ecological assessments. This review not only critically synthesizes current knowledge across health, environmental, economic, and social dimensions but also identifies limitations and future opportunities for further investigation. This framework offers guidance for researchers, forest managers, policymakers, and industry stakeholders seeking to maximize the benefits of E. globulus while minimizing environmental risks. The findings underscore the importance of integrating human well-being, ecosystem services, and sustainable development considerations in future research and management frameworks for this globally important forest species.
Sustainable forest management plays a central role in aligning the objectives of private forest landowners with broader environmental and societal goals while supporting long-term provision of ecosystem services. The adoption and intensity of sustainable forest management practices (SFMPs) are critical for enhancing forest productivity, sustaining ecosystem services, and ensuring long-term resilience. Forest carbon offset programs have emerged as market-based policy instruments to promote SFMPs by providing financial incentives to landowners to adopt carbon-capture practices. This study examines the determinants of both SFMP adoption and intensity using survey data from participants in the West Virginia Managed Timberland Program. We employ a multivariate probit model to analyze adoption decisions and Poisson regression to assess adoption intensity. The results show that practices compatible with existing management systems, such as avoided conversion (64.8%) and selective harvesting (58.5%), are more widely adopted. In contrast, practices requiring longer-term commitments or more active intervention, like reforestation or afforestation (34.4%), reduced harvesting (31.8%), and extended harvest rotations (26.8%), have lower adoption rates. Empirical findings indicate that private information networks and landowner experience are associated with the likelihood of adopting SFMPs, although their effects vary across practices. Additionally, familiarity with carbon offset programs, stronger co-benefits perception, and longer ownership duration are associated with adoption and intensity. These findings highlight the importance of policies that strengthen access to trusted information, leverage peer-based learning networks, increase awareness of carbon market opportunities, and support sustained landowner engagement to promote broader and more intensive adoption of sustainable forest management practices on private lands.
Forest bathing is a promising nature-based intervention that may support psychological and cognitive health in later life. This study examined the effects of a six-month intervention, in which forest bathing was operationalised as a group-based forest walking intervention, on cognitive and psychological health in older Malaysian adults. A total of 120 participants aged 60 years and above were randomised to a forest walk, city walk, or passive control group. Depressive and anxiety symptoms were assessed using the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CESD) and the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), respectively. Working memory and general cognition were assessed using the 2-Back task and Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA), respectively. Participants in the forest walk group showed significant reductions in depressive symptoms (p < .001, ηp² = .112) and anxiety (p = .007, ηp² = .060), whereas the city walk and control groups did not. The forest walk group also showed a significant improvement in working memory (p < .001, ηp² = .141), while no significant changes were observed in the city walk or control group. The time-by-group interaction for general cognition was not significant. These findings suggest that forest walking may support mental health and specific cognitive functions in older adults, although the cognitive effects may be domain-specific.
