Groundwater is a vital and safe source of water for sustaining life and is relied upon for a variety of uses. In the Harir Basin, some boreholes have failed due to low production capacity and permeability. Therefore, it has become necessary to track the spatial distribution of groundwater in a reliable and scientific way, for the sustainability of life in the Harir Basin. This project aims to prepare a map identifying groundwater potential zones in the Harir Basin using modern applied technologies. The project work included a Multi-Influence Factor analysis method based on a seven-list method, with some factors primary (such as Rainfall, Drainage Density, Lithology, and Slope) and others secondary (such as Land use and Land cover, Soil, and Elevations). Using geographic information systems, the final project map was generated and classified into five (very low to very high) categories, which covering of 9.144%, 27.023%, 29%, 25.943%, and 8.89%, respectively, according to groundwater potential. This work particularly in areas suffering from surface water stress, an applied scientific model that assists decision-makers in the informed management of water resources.
Surface roughness is a critical parameter in wind resource assessment, which determines the vertical wind speed profile and has a significant impact on the intensity of turbulence and extrapolation of energy yield estimates. Unlike in the preceding studies that have overlooked the terrain roughness aspect in the estimation of the wind resources in Iraq, this study provides a rigorous and systematic evaluation that directly incorporates surface roughness parameters in the determination of the site suitability as well as the prediction of potential wind farm energy output. A key feature of this approach is the use of the Wind Atlas Analysis and Application Program WAsP methodology integrated with the Global Wind Atlas dataset. The impact of surface roughness on wind characteristics and energy production from wind turbines was analyzed at three sites in Anbar Province, namely Al-Nukhayb, Al-Qa'im, and Al-Haqlaniyah, western Iraq. Wind shear, mean wind speed, power density, the Weibull parameters, and the sensitivity of these parameters to surface roughness variations were evaluated. The results indicate that changes in surface roughness led to changes in mean wind speed, Weibull scale parameter, and shear coefficient, which showed a logarithmic increase with respect to surface roughness. It observed that the prevailing wind direction originates maunly from the northwest, and the study succeeded in determining the various capacity factors for wind turbines according to different surface roughness. The capacity factors reached 30.5% at the first site, 19.2% at the second and 31.7% at the third. This highlights the substantial influence of surface roughness on evaluating the suitability of wind turbines sites. The results provide useful insights for accurately assessing wind resources and efficiently installing turbines in the initial planning stage.
Evaluating active tectonic structures is necessary for interpreting the geomorphological evolution of drainage basins and estimating the risk to urban activities, especially in the High Folded Zone of the Zagros Orogen, such as Duhok Governorate (northern Iraq), where deformation continues, albeit weakly influencing landforms. This work assesses the tectonic activities of 43 drainage sub-basins in the Zawita–Geli Besri–Swaratoka area by using five geomorphic indices calculated from ALOS DEM data (12.5 m resolution) employed in GIS based morphometric analysis. These are the Stream Length–Gradient Index, Asymmetry Factor (Af), Transverse Topographic Symmetry, Mountain Front Sinuosity (Smf), Valley Floor Width-to-Height Ratio (Vf) and Composite Index of Active Tectonics. Basin edges, channel networks, valley parameters and mountain‐front segments were calculated using ArcGIS 10.8 and used to categorize each basin as having high, moderate or low tectonic activity. The results demonstrate an obvious spatial variability in tectonic deformation, and the basins 3, 27, 35 and 37 displayed more evidence of active uplift, such as higher Stream Length–Gradient Index values, lower Smf and Vf ratios and higher asymmetry for Af and T, whereas the other basins (5, 24, 36, 39, 42 and 43) indicate geomorphic characteristics consistent with weaker tectonic signal or predominance of lateral erosion. The Index of Active Tectonics classifications demonstrated that more than half of the basins had moderated activity, consistent with a landscape in relative equilibrium (albeit likely adjusting) between tectonic uplift and fluvial erosion. Our results yield a quantitative, spatially explicit measure of active tectonic deformation in Duhok, which is valuable for geohazard assessment, land-use planning, and future geodynamic investigations in northern Iraq.
This research focuses on the geometric evaluation of the suggested Zanta Dam. Digital Elevation Model data were used in the ArcGIS environment to conduct geometric analysis through mapping and topographic sections to determine various geometric parameters. Global Mapper 18 and Surfer 16 software for the engineering analysis of geometric parameters determination were used. Zantah valley is one of the most important valleys that leads to a group of comfortable summer resorts in the district of Aqra destrict in northern Iraq. This summer resort of Kli Zanta is located in a depression between two mountain ranges, namely Seri Sada and Mount Kouiski, which is crossed by a river, with several cold, fresh springs along such valley. This path contains the oldest formations which exposed in their fold, in addition to being a large water valley that cuts through the fold completely. The research intended to obtain the geometric parameters that align with the elevations between 632 and 750 m (a.s.l.), including reservoir volume, reservoir area, underwater region of the reservoir, and average depth of the water column across two dam axes. Finally, the obtained values of the first dam axes are given to be ranged as 815414235.8 m3, 1369.6-19118851.5 m2, 1380.2-19607958.8 m2, and 24.514-42.649 m, respectively, while the values of the second axis are reached 802916552.8 m3, 18983308.3 m2, 19348005.6 m2, and 42.430 m, respectively.
The Mishrif Formation is one of the major carbonate reservoirs at R Oil Field, southern Iraq. The current study sought to evaluate the petrophysical and reservoir properties of this formation. Resistivity, gamma-ray, spontaneous potential, sonic, density, neutron, and caliper logs from seven wells (M1, M2, M3, M4, M5, M6, and M7) have been used. Porosity has been calculated in its different types (primary, total, and secondary), as well as effective porosity. Other petrophysical parameters that were calculated include shale volume, water saturation, oil saturation, both movable and residual. The Mishrif Formation contains two major reservoirs, MA and MB. It is separated by a sealing unit (CR II). MB is the second reservoir unit, further divided into two subunits, MB1 and MB2, based on the main well logs using Techlog 2015.3. Unit MA has low shale volume. The percentage ranges between) 0.04-0.16) gives moderate values for effective porosity(0.09-0.24), and results in favorable hydrocarbon saturation(0.59-.0.83). This indicates good reservoir quality, supported by high movable oil saturation and low residual oil saturation. The second reservoir unit, MB, exhibits good, variable reservoir characteristics. The MB1 subunit has low shale (0.02-0.12), good effective porosity (0.13-0.27), good oil saturation (0.48-0.68), high movable oil, and low residual oil saturation, except for well M4, which recorded 81% residual oil. The MB2 subunit is characterized by excellent effective porosity (0.18-0.26) and low shale content (0.05-0.16). However, the oil saturation is lower (0.44-0.66) than in the previous two units. Reservoir quality is best for MA, followed by MB1. The lower subunit MB2 has a lower-quality reservoir. The best reservoir is in well M1, which is near the crest of the structure. Well M2, located in the southern part of the field, has the worst reservoir among those wells studied.
Biostratigraphy plays a pivotal role in refining the geological time scale and establishing correlations between stratigraphic units across different regions. Among the most reliable biostratigraphic tools are planktonic and benthic foraminifera. This study focuses on the identification and stratigraphic distribution of foraminiferal assemblages from the upper sequences (Balambo, Kometan, Shiranish, and Tanjero formations) in the northern Iraq–Kurdistan region, through detailed micropaleontological analysis. In this study, 62 planktonic and 38 benthic foraminiferal species were recorded, corresponding to 20 and 28 genera. These microfossils were used to define thirteen planktonic foraminiferal biozones (the first two are related to the Balambo and Kometan formations, and the others belong to the Shiranish Formation), in addition, one large benthic foraminiferal assemblage belonging to the Aqra Formation was identified. The biozones range in age from Late Albian to Middle Maastrichtian. Each biozone is characterized by key index species and delineated by the First Appearance Datum and Last Appearance Datums of diagnostic taxa. These are, from older to younger, as follows: Biticinella breggiensis Total Range Zone, Dicarinella concavata Interval Range Zone, Archaeoglobigerina blowi Total Range Zone, Globotruncanita elevata Interval Rnge Zone, Globotruncana ventricosa Interval Range Zone, Globotruncanita stuartiformis Partial Range Zone, Globotruncanita calcarata Total Range Zone, Globotruncana rosetta Total Range Zone, Globotruncanella havanensis Partial Range Zone, Globotruncana aegyptiaca Interval Range Zone, Gansserina gansseri Interval Range Zone, Contusotruncana contusa Partial Range Zone, Planoglobulina acervulinoides Total Range zone and Omphalocyclus macropours - Siderolites calcitropoides- Loftusia minor Assemblage Zone.
Petrographic, mineral chemistry, and geochemical analyses were conducted on a gabbroic diorite dike within the Walash Group in the NW Zagros fold–thrust belt along the Arabia–Eurasia suture zone of the Choman area, about 110 km northeast of Erbil City in northeastern Iraq. The gabbroic diorite dike consists predominantly of plagioclase, pyroxene, and hornblende, with accessory opaque minerals, apatite, and sphene, as well as their alteration products. The secondary minerals, such as sericite, chlorite, calcite, and quartz, indicate post-magmatic alteration. Geochemically, these rocks display distinctive subduction signatures as indicated by significant negative anomalies in High Field Strength Elements (HFSE: Nb, Ta, Ti, Th, P) and enrichment in Large Ion Lithophile Elements (Rb, Sr, K, Ba) relative to the primitive mantle. Significant depletion in Light Rare Earth Elements relative to Heavy Rare Earth Elements, alongside low (La/Yb)n and (Ce/Yb)n ratios of <1, low Sm/Yb, and high Cr–Ni contents, suggests derivation from parental magmas generated by 15–20% partial melting of a depleted spinel peridotite mantle source beneath an island arc. Fractional crystallization of plagioclase (evidenced by negative Eu anomalies), clinopyroxene, hornblende, and Fe–Ti oxides (ilmenite/titanomagnetite) controlled the magma evolution. Variations in mobile trace elements (e.g., Rb) reflect secondary alteration and slight crustal contamination, though immobile element signatures remain invariant. Multiple tectonic discrimination diagrams, such as Zr/Y–Th/Yb, La/10–Y/15–Nb/8, Co–Th, and Th–Hf–Zr–Nb, consistently categorize the gabbroic diorite within the island arc tholeiite (IAT) field. The geochemical signature of this island arc tholeiite, formed in a subduction-related setting and influenced by crystal fractionation within the Arabia–Eurasia suture zone, signifies a crucial stage in the closure of the Neo-Tethys Ocean.
This study presents petrographic, geochemical, and Sm-Nd isotopic data for the Chalki basaltic rocks (Chalki basalts) from the Zakho area in northern Iraq. These basaltic rocks are intercalated with Pirispiki metasediments and associated with several thrust sheets extending from Bitlis in southeastern Turkey to northern Iraq. Petrography reveals microporphyritic, amygdaloidal textures with primary plagioclase, olivine, and pyroxene, partially altered to zeolite, calcite, and chlorite. Geochemically, the rocks are sub-alkaline tholeiitic basalts with affinities closer to enriched mid-ocean ridge basalt (E-MORB). Trace element patterns, including the absence of a significant negative Eu anomaly, indicate derivation from partial melting of a depleted, spinel lherzolite mantle source within a back-arc basin setting, without substantial plagioclase fractionation. The absence of a negative Eu anomaly suggests minimal plagioclase fractionation. Additionally, the rocks may have formed by partial melting of a depleted mid-oceanic mantle–derived spinel lherzolite in a back-arc basin. Sm-Nd isotopic analysis yields an age of 375 ± 5.5 Ma (Late Devonian, Frasnian), interpreted as the crystallization age. Positive εNd values (+4.8 to +6.2) confirm a depleted mantle origin, though their variation suggests some open-system behavior and minor crustal contamination during ascent. Integrated data indicate that the Chalki basalts represent dismembered fragments of Middle to Late Devonian oceanic lithosphere, subsequently obducted and incorporated into the thrust zone during the closure of the Neo-Tethys Ocean.
The Mauddud Formation, deposited during the Albain Stage of the Early Cretaceous is a hydrocarbon-ric–h reservoir and represents the second economic reservoir after the Yamama Formation in Ratawi oil field. The Mauddud Formation was studied in five wells that were distributed across the field, southern Iraq, open- hole well logs were obtained for these wells. the Mauddud Formation consists mostly of limestone, with shale interbeds, the petrophysical properties results confirmed that the shale volume of the formation is low in most wells, with a porosity distribution ranging from 10% to 26%, and the formation contains different proportions of the produced hydrocarbons. Based on results, the formation was divided into four units: MA, MB, MC, and MD. Through porosity and permeability calculations, the pore type and flow unit were determined based on the pore throat radius (r35) curve. As the results showed that the type of pore ranged between macroport and megaport in unit MA, while in unit MC the type of pore ranged between microport and macroport, these variation indicate reservoir heterogeneity within the Mauddud Formation. The flow units in the Mauddud Formation were identified using the Interactive Petrophysics program, and based on the application of flow zone indicator equations. As the results showed that wells Rt-4, Rt-6, and Rt-7 consist of three hydraulic flow units, while the wells Rt-5 and Rt-3 consist of four hydraulic flow units, reflecting greater heterogeneity in permeability distribution and pore structure.
This study aims to develop a three-dimensional facies model for the Jeribe Formation in the X Gas field, northeastern Iraq, within the Unstable shelf. The field lies within one of the most important NW-SE trending anticlinal structures in eastern Iraq. The reservoir characteristics of the Jeribe Formation exhibit significant vertical variation. Based on lithological changes, microfacies variations, and well-log responses. The formation was subdivided into seven units. Most units exhibit good reservoir quality due to the development of secondary porosity associated with fracturing and dissolution processes, except for the first and sixth units, which are predominantly anhydrite and display poor reservoir properties. Four wells (X-1, X-2, X-3, and X-4) were used in this study, with well X-2 selected as the main reference well due to the availability of core samples. The Jeribe Formation has an average thickness of about 60m, with sampling intervals ranging from 1.5 to 2m. Petrographic analysis of 52 thin sections from well X-2 resulted in the identification of six microfacies: lime mudstone, lime mudstone – wackestone, wackestone, wackestone–packstone, bioclastic Packstone, and peloidal Packstone. Reservoir properties were evaluated using well-log data, including shale volume, porosity, and fluid saturation, derived from sonic, neutron porosity, density, resistivity, and spectral gamma ray logs. The facies demonstrate a strong diagenetic control on reservoir quality. Reservoir quality increases toward well X-2 and decreases toward well X-4. A 3D facies model was constructed using petrel software by using the Sequential Indicator Simulation (SIS) method to enhance understanding of facies distribution and support gas-reserve evaluation.
This paper uses Geographic Information Systems to identify regions prone to flooding in the Shalair Valley Basin and assess their exposure level of risk to which they are exposed, with particular interest in the residential, urban and agricultural communities. It analyzes the terrain using Digital Elevation Models obtained from the USGS and creates many maps, including topography, gradient, and aspect, and considers five important factors into account: the elevation above sea level (10%), gradient (10%), waterway density (30%), land use (10%), and rainfall patterns. The greatest weight was assigned to public opinion (35%). The resulting flood risk map categorizes the area into five different groups, namely extremely low (8.5%), low (14%), moderate (20.5%), considerable (25%), and critically high risk (31.85%). The results indicate that over half of the studied zone is under a significant or even critical flood risk; thus, high-level land management practices and flood control methods are needed to prevent future flood impacts.
Permeability is a fundamental property controlling how hydrocarbons migrate and are ultimately produced from a reservoir. Although measurements obtained from core samples provide precise values, they are expensive to acquire and only cover a few intervals. In this study, permeability prediction was achieved using artificial neural networks trained on core data from two selected wells (X‑1 and X‑2) within the carbonate Khasib Formation in X Oilfield, southeastern Iraq. The input parameters used in the artificial neural networks included sonic (DT), neutron porosity (NPHI), bulk density (RHOB), and gamma-ray logs processed using the Interactive Petrophysics software. Utilizing the reservoir quality index and flow zone indicator techniques, the artificial neural networks -derived permeability values (Perm. NN) were then used to define hydraulic flow units. The comparison between predicted and core‑measured permeability showed excellent consistency (coefficient of determination R² > 0.90), demonstrating the robustness of the model. Hydraulic flow unit analysis based on the predicted data revealed five main flow units (HFU-1, HFU-2, HFU-3, HFU-4, and HFU-5) that reflect variations in reservoir quality and heterogeneity. The (HFU-5) is the best flow unit in the Khasib Formation due to the high flow zone indicator. This combined process reveals that when core data is limited, the predicted permeability by artificial neural networks can be an accurate and economical method for HFU characterization.
Rock falls, rolling, toppling, and plane sliding are common modes of rock mass movement that occur on steep to moderate slopes and rock faces. These movements occur under the influence of gravity, where detached rocks continue downslope by rotating along the surface, or rotate about a pivot point due to slope geometry or unfavorable discontinuities. Plane sliding occurs when rock blocks move downslope along planar surfaces such as bedding planes or joints. These failure mechanisms are often triggered by weathering, rainfall, seismic activity, or human intervention, and they represent significant hazards to infrastructure, transportation, and human life. Two stations were selected in the Pila Spi Formation of the Bekhme area, consisting of crystalline limestone, dolomitic, clayey, and chalky units. The strike and dip of the bedding planes and joints were measured at two sites. The average data were plotted on a stereonet, and it was found that the study area is biased towards rockfall, rolling, toppling, and only rarely plane sliding.
Nickel laterite deposits in the Tinanggea Block, Southeast Sulawesi, developed from the weathering of ultramafic rocks and were later preserved beneath a sedimentary cover. This study examines three representative profiles with contrasting overburden conditions: Asingi (sandstone), Atari Jaya (uncovered), and Watumerembe (limestone). Mineralogical and geochemical analyses, including petrography, X-ray Powder Diffraction, XRF, ICP-AES, ICP-MS, and SEM-EDS, were conducted to characterize the bedrock, saprolite, limonite, ferruginous cap, and overburden horizons. The results reveal progressive alteration of primary olivine and orthopyroxene into serpentine, smectite, magnetite, goethite, and hematite, along with systematic redistribution of elements. Nickel is significantly enriched within secondary silicates in saprolite and is adsorbed onto Fe-(oxy) hydroxides in limonite. The presence of sedimentary cover affects weathering intensity, Ni mobility, and deposit preservation, with limestone notably causing Ca enrichment in the upper horizons. Based on mineralogical evolution, elemental behavior, and stratigraphic relationships, a five-stage conceptual model for laterite development beneath sedimentary cover is proposed. The model highlights the roles of early serpentinization–carbonation, saprolite enrichment, limonite formation, ferruginous cap development, and final burial by clastic and carbonate sediments. These findings provide new insights into the formation mechanisms, preservation processes, and exploration potential of sediment-covered nickel laterites in Indonesia.
The consolidation behavior of silty clay soils in Hilla City, Babylon Governorate, Central Iraq, is chosen for this research. Four boreholes, each three meters deep, were drilled. According to the Casagrande chart, the undisturbed samples obtained using Shelby tubes showed high clay content, ranging from 29.3% to 61.8%, thereby classifying the soils as CL–CH. Both fully saturated and partially saturated (S=50%) tissues underwent consolidation tests. Between dryness and complete saturation, the 50% saturation level is a crucial engineering state that significantly affects mechanical reaction and settling potential. The findings indicated that whereas cv and k were greater in partially saturated soils, indicating faster consolidation due to improved drainage and lower pore pressure, e¹, Pc, Cc, Cs, av, and mv were higher in fully saturated soils and were positively associated with clay content. The agreement between numerical modeling using the soft soil model in PLAXIS and laboratory testing was good, with values ranging from 2.17 to 2.50 cm and from 2.38 to 2.6 cm, respectively. The results indicate that soil compressibility and settling properties are strongly affected by seasonal fluctuations in groundwater. In order to guarantee the long-term stability of foundations in Babylon's fine-grained soils, soil improvement techniques like controlled compaction, preloading, or vertical drains are advised prior to construction, even when the measured settlements are within allowable bounds.
Ground magnetic surveying was used to identify shallow subsurface engineering utilities at the University of Baghdad campus in Jadriya, Iraq. The site area was surveyed with a proton magnetometer G816 along closely spaced profiles to obtain the Total Magnetic Intensity (TMI) data. Twelve profiles trending east-west, and six others trending north-south, were surveyed. The length of profiles ranges between 31 and 39 m, and the spacing between the measured stations was 1 m. Standard corrections were applied, followed by Reduction To Pole and regional- residual separation to enhance shallow magnetic responses. The Total Magnetic Intensity, Reduction To Pole, regional, and residual profiles and maps show a main magnetic negative anomaly, whereas the residual anomaly showed linear characteristics suggestive of near-surface sources. The interpreted anomalies exhibit clear linear trends that correlate spatially with subsurface utility layouts provided by the engineering department, suggesting that the detected responses are mainly associated with buried reinforced concrete rooms (Shelters) and electrical cables. However, noticeable discrepancies between mapped utility paths and the detected anomaly locations indicate that the existing engineering maps require updating. This study indicates that ground magnetic surveying offers a dependable, non-destructive means for identifying and delineating shallow engineering utilities, thus safer excavation planning in urban sites.
The velocity of settlement can lead to excessive deformations, cracking, or even structural collapse, making it a crucial consideration in geotechnical design. Settlement can continue for years or even decades in clayey soils. Assuming constant permeability, Terzaghi's one-dimensional consolidation theory explains the time-dependent settling behavior. The impact of partial saturation on this behavior, however, has not gotten as much attention. This study compares fully saturated clayey soils with partially saturated soils at a 50% degree of saturation to examine the impact of soil saturation on consolidation characteristics. Five boreholes were selected in Hilla City, Babylon Governorate. Both boreholes are used for laboratory and field research, as well as for physical, geotechnical, and chemical testing, in compliance with British and ASTM standards. The results show that the consolidation settling range for fully saturated clayey soils is 0.75 to 3.26 cm, while the range for moderately saturated soils (S = 50%) is 0.68 to 2.59 cm. Reduced permeability and increased matric suction are the reasons for the observed reduction in settlement during partial saturation. These findings show how crucial it is to account for saturation conditions when evaluating consolidation behavior and planning ground improvement to ensure the long-term stability and functionality of structures constructed on clayey deposits.
The present study aims to evaluate porosity and permeability in the Late Cretaceous Yamama Formation in the Halfaya oil field. The formation is divided by Maysan Oil Company into three main units (YRA, YRB, and YRC), with the upper unit (YRA) further subdivided into six subunits based on facies distribution. The dominant pore types were identified using bulk volume water relationships and include mainly chalky to intercrystalline porosity, with occasional vuggy porosity. The results show relatively low porosity values (5–12%), which significantly affect permeability, with most values below 1 mD, resulting in poor reservoir performance. Due to the limited availability of core data, the study also aimed to identify the most suitable empirical relationship for estimating permeability from well logs; 7 wells were used in the study. The XF6 well showed the best results, which is located southeast of the fold. The Wyllie equation showed better agreement with core permeability data than the Timur and Coates equations and was therefore adopted for permeability estimation. Weinland analysis indicates that most units fall within the Microport range, suggesting very low productivity unless enhanced recovery methods are applied. However, some units fall within the Macroport range of nearly 1000 BPD and exhibit better reservoir quality and higher production potential. The petrophysical results are supported by scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysis, which confirmed the identified pore types and revealed the presence of minerals( pyrite, feldspar, calcite, barite, chlorite, and minor quartz ), and the presence of dolomite and the clay content both negatively affect porosity and permeability.
Two models were applied in this study for the aim to generate future weather elements and simulate future runoff in Horan Valley, one of the largest valleys in the Iraqi western desert. Weather data from the last ten years was used by the climate model to generate future weather elements for the next ten years (2026-2035), such as rain and temperature. The generated results indicate that maximum rainfall is expected in April 2026 (91.6 mm, November 2030 (60.3 mm, January 2031 (76.4 mm), and December 2035 (68.3 mm). Results of this model are used as weather input data in the hydrological model to simulate and predict future runoff for Horan Valley. In the model simulation, the watershed delineation yielded 106 hydrological response units and 24 sub-basins. The future runoff quantities estimated by this model represent the expected amount of water that will be directly added to the Euphrates River. Results from the model simulation show that the maximum runoff during the next ten years occurs in April 2026 (18.4 mm), November 2030 (13.3mm), and January 2033 (17.4 mm), where the runoff periods are concentrated during the rainy season from November to April. The estimation of future runoff quantity in Horan Valley is very important to provide accurate future forecasts of water resources in the study region.
This study deals with the reconstruction of the paleoenvironmental settings of the Bekrit and Bou Anguer areas, Middle Atlas of Morocco, across the Maastrichtian–Danian interval, through a detailed micropalaeontological analysis of planktonic and benthic foraminifera. The reconstruction is mainly based on the vertical distribution of foraminiferal assemblages observed in nine representative lithostratigraphic sections. The results revealed a marked palaeoenvironmental differentiation between the southwestern and northeastern parts of the study area. The southwestern part is characterised by a shallow infralittoral environment with high benthic diversity, reflecting nearshore marine conditions. In contrast, the northeastern part exhibits a gradual transition towards deeper environments, ranging from infralittoral to circalittoral settings, indicating a more complex ecological dynamic, likely driven by tectonic and eustatic factors. These observations highlighted the relevance of foraminifera as reliable bioindicators of palaeoenvironmental conditions, particularly in relation to water depth, sedimentary regimes, and ecological fluctuations following the Cretaceous–Paleogene crisis.
