Lighthouses are ambivalent objects: on the one hand, they form part of the ‘maritime transport infrastructure’; on the other, they are perceived as distinctive coastal landmarks and symbols. Through their light signals, they enable those who can interpret them to determine their location, effectively serving as a ‘road guidance system’. However, for the majority of people who lack knowledge of these signals, lighthouses are simply typical coastal tourist attractions. The same applies to other navigational aids that are also clearly visible from land, such as lateral and cardinal buoys. This observation stems from a project currently being developed by the author under the title ‘Between myth, transit and home: an interdisciplinary perspective on the Baltic Sea (1871–1978)’. In this project, various perspectives—such as cultural, economic, political, transport related, tourist related and natural landscape related—are to be explored and interrelated, using infrastructural facilities as a basis, amongst other things, and analysed in terms of their significance for those living both within and outside maritime spaces. Nautical charts are promising sources in this context. This article demonstrates the role that individual infrastructure facilities can play as heuristic links, on the one hand, and the role that nautical charts can play, on the other, in the context of the systematic exploration of maritime spaces.
Digital navigation systems facilitate goal-directed travel but reduce active engagement with the surrounding environment—a process critical for the formation of allocentric cognitive maps. Neuroscientific evidence reveals that spatial orientation relies on the coordinated activity of specialized spatially tuned neuronal populations, including place cells, head direction cells, grid cells, and border cells. This article introduces the specific properties of these spatially tuned cells, which encode central components of spatial information such as position, direction, distance, boundaries, and object relationships. Cell activities are continuously modulated by the perception of stable landmarks and environmental boundaries. This could form the basis for a “neurocartographic” approach that focuses on the systematic use of these cell activities to support spatial orientation. Enhancing the visual salience of landmarks and boundary structures, as well as integrating Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality(AR)-based components, may strengthen the metric representation of space—particularly grid cell–based coding. The overarching objective of this approach is to promote the development of allocentric and egocentric spatial representations during both real-world navigation and map-based wayfinding, thereby counteracting the decline in navigational abilities observed with the widespread use of digital turn-by-turn systems.
For decades, we have observed a significant increase in spatial and digital humanities research. Among other approaches, historical spatial data are published online via various geoportals. Introducing geographic information systems (GIS) to spatial history has influenced the whole research process, from data collection to the dissemination and publication of research results. The significant role of historical geoportals in research and dissemination did not, however, result in a comprehensive set of requirements for their functionality, nor in a domain-specific methodology tailored to applications with historical data and designed for the audience focusing on the past. The current article presents a study aiming to compare perceived usability assessments of historical geoportal functionalities among researchers with diverse backgrounds (Polish users vs. foreign users, historians vs. geographers). A mixed-methods approach was employed, comprising an online survey (N = 117) and two focus group interviews (N = 5). Historians were less interested in functions that enabled work with spatial data in other software than geographers and preferred ready-to-use GIS solutions. The number of significant differences between the answers of respondents from Poland and abroad was limited. We conclude by formulating recommendations aiming at content structure, layout, and language options. We also reflect on the role of optimization of a search engine.
Geographic information systems (GIS) have become central to applied spatial work, yet the structure and recent trajectory of master’s education in geographic information science and technology (GIS T) in the United States remain underexplored. This study analyzes degree completion data from the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) between 2012 and 2024, drawing upon the Central Improvement Program (CIP)-based classification scheme to identify broader geography (GIS-related) and GIS T (GIS-focused) programs and then employing a program-orientation typology (research, professional, mixed) to characterize them. Active GIS T master’s programs as of 2026 are manually verified and depicted on a continuously updated interactive map that visualizes geographic patterns in program types. Results show that GIS T degrees have grown rapidly and now exceed traditional geography master’s degrees in annual awards, even as the number of institutions offering geography programs has remained relatively stable. Mixed thesis/non-thesis designs and postbaccalaureate certificates have expanded, indicating diversification of credentials, while recent years show stabilization and selective program closure. Demographic analysis reveals persistent gender gaps, slow racial and ethnic diversification, and a modest but policy-sensitive role for international students. The study concludes that GIS T master’s education has moved toward a more central and professionalized position within graduate geography, while also entering a possible period of moderation marked by consolidation, redefinition, and growing ties to workforce demand.
The use of extended reality (XR) hardware for virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) applications provides new opportunities for innovative spatial research. It enables ways for immersive (re-)presentation of and interaction with spatial environments that are not possible with monitor-based studies. Simultaneously, using XR hardware can either extend opportunities of studies in physical material environments with virtual augmentations or provide extensive experimental control over stimuli and distractors by exposing participants to fully virtual spatial representations. However, these new research approaches require adjustments to the planning and execution of spatial studies. Furthermore, new challenges such as the occurrence of VR sickness or the need for accurate spatial tracking under different environmental conditions must be addressed. In this article, we examine basic potentials, challenges, and requirements associated with spatial research with XR hardware. Furthermore, we address inherent trade-offs of various design decisions, such as the selection of a specific head-mounted display (HMD), software tools, and general experiment design characteristics such as available locomotion methods and stimulus presentation. By providing an overview of important issues associated with the design of spatial studies with XR hardware, we aim to give spatial researchers an entry point into the development of VR and AR studies, or to offer additional food for thought for researchers with initial XR experience.
Animated thematic maps are a powerful way to communicate how phenomena change over space and time. However, they place substantial cognitive demands on viewers, who must organize continuously unfolding information into meaningful structure. This study examines the role of event segmentation, the cognitive process of partitioning continuous input into discrete events, in the comprehension of dynamic maps. Specifically, it probes how segmentation during perception relates to how viewers later describe animated maps. In two online experiments (N = 538), participants viewed animated choropleth maps depicting changes in insect population density, segmented the unfolding animation into meaningful units, and then described the map’s development in their own words. Recall responses were analyzed with regard to the spatial structure they reflected and the overlap between viewers. Further, the analyses compared stepwise (discrete) and continuous (smoothly interpolated) animation styles. Across analyses, a consistent pattern emerged: participants whose segmentation was more closely aligned with the group pattern produced descriptions that captured aspects of the map’s underlying structure more consistently. Specifically, their responses grouped regions that shared temporal trajectories and were more similar to those of other participants and structured reference descriptions. Additionally, animation style influenced both segmentation behavior and description patterns. The findings suggest that how viewers segment dynamic maps is linked to how they structure and communicate what they have seen. Methodologically, the study examines how free recall, combined with text-analytic measures, can be used to assess cognitive processing of animated maps in large samples. Given the exploratory nature of the analyses, these results provide a basis for further research questions on segmentation, memory, and map design.
This article develops a neopragmatist approach to cartography that understands maps as linguistic-visual vocabularies for geographical world creation. The starting point is the diagnosis of a mediatized present in which spatial meanings increasingly arise in hybrid arrangements of language, images, and technical infrastructures. Against this background, it is argued that the analytical separation between linguistically oriented and visual approaches in geography is losing its explanatory power. Cartography is a paradigmatic case in which visibility and sayability are inextricably intertwined. Theoretically, the article develops Rorty’s neopragmatism as a metatheoretical framework for cartographic research that considers the entanglement of language and visuality. Maps are not understood as representations of an objective world but as contingent, historically grown, and normatively framed tools. Their epistemic value is measured by their problem-solving potential. The concept of vocabulary makes it possible to analyze cartographic images as changeable and criticizable practices of redescription that make certain versions of the world plausible and hide others. Selected examples from digital cartography, maps in computer games, and artificial intelligence (AI)-supported visualizations are used to show how cartographic vocabularies are currently expanding and transforming. Interactive maps and story maps function as narrative interfaces, maps in computer games make the contingency of spatial order experimentally tangible, and algorithmically generated maps point to new forms of power. The current article is intended as an integrative draft that combines critical cartography, visual geographies, and discourse-analytical approaches in a pragmatist sense and profiles cartography as an open, reflexive, and socially relevant practice of world creation.
Digital maps in commercial video games are among the most common cartographic experiences in young people’s everyday lives, yet their potential for developing map literacy has received little attention in geography education research. Unlike traditional school maps, game-based maps are dynamic, interactive, and embedded in decision-making processes, requiring players to continuously decode, interpret, and adapt spatial information. Research shows that these maps differ fundamentally from conventional cartography through features such as functional abstraction, incomplete or selectively revealed information, genre-specific logics, transitions between 2D and 3D views, and mechanics such as the fog of war. This article integrates perspectives from game studies, cartography, and geography education to propose a model of map literacy for digital games. The model comprises four interconnected levels—decoding, contextual analysis, strategic interpretation, and purposeful modification—supplemented by reflective cycles. The discussion outlines implications for geography instruction, emphasizing digital games as culturally relevant learning environments and highlighting opportunities for future empirical research.
This paper is about a new auxiliary sphere which could be used as the intermediate surface in an aphylactic (neither equal-area nor conformal) double mapping for regional maps. It has practically no linear distortion (average linear scale is between 0.99999 and 1.00001) for a latitude band approximately 20° wide. The study contains the formulae to derive this low-distortion sphere and some thoughts on practical usability.
From a neopragmatic perspective, this article proposes understanding scientific theory as a form of second-order cartography. The starting point is the observation that although comparing theories with maps is common practice in scientific theory, it usually remains at a metaphorical level. Against this background, central cartographic principles—in particular selection, projection, scale, generalization, symbolic language, purposefulness, and use—are first reconstructed and then interpreted as epistemic operations of a theoretical order. Building on a neopragmatic metatheoretical framework, especially as interpreted by Richard Rorty, theories are understood as contingent, purpose-bound, and revision-open tools of orientation. From this perspective, scientific theory does not appear as an instance of evaluating theories in terms of their truth content or hierarchization, but rather as a reflexive practice of relating different theoretical approaches. The article shows how theoretical pluralism can be understood as a productive resource. It discusses the normative implications of this approach, with a particular focus on usefulness, complementarity, and the expansion of life chances.
Analysis of user groups in geosocial media data presents significant methodological challenges, as users can be characterized by numerous attributes, the combinations of which produce complex group structures. Conventional visualization techniques often struggle to represent such multidimensional attribute combinations and to support the visual analysis of relevant groups. The FacetWheel addresses this limitation through a set-oriented data model, representing user groups as intersections of discrete attribute values. Its visual design follows a radial metaphor: attributes are arranged in a circle, with their attribute values shown as color-coded rectangles. Groups are represented by rectangles or appear as connecting lines, the width of which encodes group size. To reduce visual complexity and facilitate targeted pattern detection, interactive tools are provided. The integration of the overlap coefficient enables a quantitative assessment of group overlaps, an aspect rarely addressed in comparable visualization methods. Supplementary map and timeline views extend the analysis to spatial and temporal dimensions. This integration expands traditional cartographic approaches, which typically visualize single attributes or aggregated categories, by enabling the exploration of multidimensional, set-based groups in their spatial and temporal context. A case study demonstrates that the FacetWheel can address a wide range of analytical questions concerning the structure, size, and distribution of user groups. While the visualization has limitations when selecting very small groups, it offers improved scalability, interpretability, and quantifiability. Overall, the FacetWheel provides a visually differentiated interactive environment for exploring complex group structures, opening new perspectives for data-driven spatial and temporal research on geosocial media.
The communication of weather and climate phenomena plays an important role in everyday life as well as in current debates. This article focuses on the representation of absolute temperatures in selected temperature maps from media and official sources. Its core objective is to analyze the usability of color schemes. An analytical and an empirical study were conducted to evaluate the usability of the color schemes. Specifically, the intuitive recognition of graphical sequence, association between values and meaning, differentiation of colors, and aesthetics were considered. Special emphasis was placed on users with color vision deficiencies. The studies identified several weaknesses in the color schemes—sometimes with contradictory findings, such as high subjective approval of readability versus poor effectiveness. These conclusions served as the basis for developing a new scheme to be proposed for future use.
Icons serve everyone’s daily life: in physical places like train stations, on almost every interactive user interface, and on many maps. When multiple icons are used on a map, designers strive for visual consistency of the icon set, as this has been shown to improve legibility of the resulting map. However, creating such map icon sets is time consuming and demands design expertise. With the emergence of generative artificial intelligence (AI), research has been carried out into the generation of icons by AI, enabling non-experts to create map icons. The individual results from existing tools such as PictoAI and DALL·E can vary in style and have too many details. To address this challenge, this research introduces the LoRAicon model, a model integrating the low-rank adaptation (LoRA) fine-tuning method with Stable Diffusion XL (SDXL). The method uses fewer parameters for specific applications and can learn from training icons to produce new icons that maintain visual consistency across a set. This study provides a grounded approach for generating map icon sets, particularly in terms of meeting the critical constraints of visual consistency within a set. For the evaluation, we conducted a user study on two user groups. The result shows that users without design backgrounds perceived LoRAicon as more consistent than users with cartographic design experience. Overall, LoRAicon demonstrated a good level of visual consistency across graphical aspects for both user groups. However, some limitations remain, and further research is needed to address them, particularly when compared to designer-created icon sets.
Urban landscapes pose significant challenges for land use/land cover (LULC) classification due to the inherent heterogeneity of built-up areas, vegetation, bare ground, and water bodies. This study aims to enhance the accuracy of urban LULC classification by combining multiple spectral indices within a machine-learning approach and statistically evaluating model performance. Using Kyiv, Ukraine, as a case study, we assess whether integrating vegetation, soil, and built-up indices with satellite-derived spectral reflectance improves the separation of urban LULC classes. Sentinel‑2 Level-2A images acquired during the spring–autumn periods of 2020–2022 were processed in Google Earth Engine to generate seasonally balanced mosaics. Nineteen spectral indices were grouped according to the physical features they highlight (water, built-up areas, bare soil, and vegetation) and combined with layers of terrain (slope and elevation), texture, and differential operators. Sixteen feature sets were then classified using three machine-learning algorithms: random forest (RF), classification and regression trees (CART), and support vector machines (SVM). Our results show that RF delivered the highest accuracy metrics. Random forest using feature set combination 3 (targeted bare soils and built-up indices) achieved an overall accuracy (OA) of approximately 90.94
Ecological performance represents the value derived from evaluating the impacts of human activities on urban ecosystems through defined indicators and their integrated assessment. This study develops an environmental performance model to examine the combined effects of urban development on ecological indicators in Ankara. Spatial and quantitative analyses were conducted indicator by indicator to determine relative integrated impacts. The primary indicators—groundwater recharge, surface runoff potential, flood risk, sediment management, urban heat island effect, carbon storage, and air quality—were assessed using established measurement techniques and integrated via the analytic hierarchy process (AHP). To inform landscape conservation, development, and management strategies, a two-stage clustering approach was applied. Results indicate that areas with “very high” and “high” landscape vulnerability comprise 50.27
Geography teachers’ subjective perceptions of space can determine how geographical content is selected and taught. In order to classify such spatial conceptions theoretically, it is essential to distinguish between the concepts of space and place: While space describes abstract spatial structures, place refers to locations that are shaped by experiences and meanings. While the importance of mental maps for assessing a change in students’ spatial conceptions has been emphasized and implemented in curriculum documents, there is only limited knowledge about the role of mental maps in teacher education. Against this background, this study investigates how field trips change pre-service geography teachers’ conceptions of spatial structures and subjectively meaningful places. To address the research question, mental maps were used in a pre–post design to assess the spatial conceptions of pre-service geography teachers (n = 21) of selected geographical areas (the Alps, Tenerife, Ecuador) at three time points, namely before a seminar (T1), after a seminar or before a field trip (T2), and after a field trip (T3). The results show that pre-service teachers’ spatial concepts develop individually on the one hand, but on the other hand, regularities in the representation of spatial concepts can also be derived. Significant changes emerge when subject-specific analysis is combined with a geography education perspective, considering both indirect (media) and direct (field trip) encounters with the space. The study highlights it clear that mental maps are a valuable tool for diagnosing and promoting geography teaching and learning processes and has important implications for teacher training.
