Introduction. The Armenian-Mongolian dictionary from Chapter 32 of the History of Armenia by Kirakos Gandzaketsi (13th century) is an oldest source on the medieval Mongolian language. It has been repeatedly published and commented on since the mid-19th century. However, the manuscript tradition of the dictionary (copies of the 16th–19th centuries) has experienced no systematic phylogenetic revision. Goals. The paper is aimed to construct a phylogenetic probability tree for manuscripts’ protographs and revise the obtained results through independent methods. Materials and methods. A total of 21 available copies of the History have been examined. A table of 248 lines with 58 translation equivalents (49 variable ones) with Proto-Mongolian and Proto-Turkic reconstructions has been compiled. Distances between the lists have been calculated using a weighted feature matrix (weight = 1 − proportion of copies with most frequent reading). The Tree’s pattern follows that of the neighbor-joining (NJ) method, rooted by the minimum phonetic distance to proto-forms; node support is that of Bootstrap (500 pseudo-samples). The results have been additionally checked using the maximum parsimony, Neighbor-Net and Leave-one-out methods. Results. The first part of the article describes the biography of Kirakos Gandzaketsi and analyzes in detail the history of the research and publication “The History of Armenia”. The manuscript tradition of the “History” begins in the 16th century, with the earliest copy dating back to 1594 — more than three centuries from the time of its composition. This inevitably affected the text, especially the spelling of foreign words, which could have changed not only as a result of scribal errors or dialectal transitions, but also as a result of deliberate editorial work. A description of the transliteration used to prepare the research material is provided. The second part of the article examines the results of constructing a phylogenetic tree, as well as the results of its verification using various statistical methods.
Introduction. The verbalization of virginity in Uzbek linguoculture at the turn of the 21st century is regulated by taboo, ritual practices, and institutional norms. Therefore, direct nominations are systematically replaced by euphemistic formulations that redistribute responsibility and the degree of public ‘visibility’ of the intimate. Goals. The article seeks to reconstruct the cognitive–frame organization of euphemistic nominations of virginity and to describe register- and pragmatics-based dynamics across four interrelated frames. Materials and methods. The study is based on a lexicographically mediated corpus compiled from a concise Uzbek euphemistic dictionary. On this basis, 149 euphemistic nominations pertaining to the sphere of maidenhood have been selected and normalized. Methodologically, the analysis relies on a cognitive–frame approach that models euphemistic nomination through event–role configurations and captures meaning re-profiling in the shift from direct to secondary naming. The interpretation further draws on Conceptual Metaphor and Metonymy Theory and pragmatic–discourse analysis, which accounts for the register sensitivity of euphemisms and their communicative orientations toward neutralization, normalization, juridification, and stigmatization. Results. The obtained data reveal a systematic shift in source domains along the event trajectory asfollows: the pre-event status is sacralized through botanical and protective imagery; the feature is reprofiled as value and resource via object- and packaging-based metaphoricity; the loss of status is construed as boundary rupture in veil- and fabric-based as well as procedural formulas; and post-event nominations range from neutralizing normalization to stigmatizing labeling. A recurrent cognitive nexus is the semiotics of boundary and its violation, while the key discourse effect is the dynamics of agency, whereby responsibility may be explicitly attributed to the perpetrator, blurred through proceduralization, or transferred onto the status bearer through collective sanction. Conclusions. Euphemization is conceptualized as an operational frame dynamic that integrates tropes, registers, and deontic regimes into a single model of managing public sensitivity. The four-frame model captures transitions between sacralization, neutralization, legal fixation, and stigmatization — and demonstrates how shifts in responsibility intensify traumatic and reputational pressure. The findings are applicable to comparative linguocultural research and to evaluating the ecological quality of public communication, while further validation of the model requires expanding the source base.
Introduction. The article deals with studies of set expressions in contemporary Chinese linguistics. Special attention is paid to the formation of the terminological system of Chinese paremiology, the description of the main types of set expressions, and the problem of correlating Chinese and Russian scholarly traditions. Goals. The study aims to analyze the terminological system of set expressions in Modern Chinese and to develop principles for their description within the framework of Russian-Chinese paremiology. To facilitate this, the article examines the main approaches to the study of Chinese set expressions, analyzes key terms of contemporary Chinese phraseology, and characterizes the main types of set expressions in Chinese. Materials and methods. The research material consists of culturally significant set expressions of Modern Chinese. The methodological basis of the study is the idea of the systemic nature of set expressions, including paremias. The research employs the comparative method, elements of cognitive-semantic analysis, a linguocultural approach, and interpretative analysis of set expressions from the perspective of intercultural description. Results. The study characterizes the main approaches to the description of Chinese set expressions, clarifies the correlation between the terms shuyu, xiyu, suyu, and yuhui, and identifies the core types of set expressions in Modern Chinese, including yanyu, chengyu, xiehouyu, and guanyongyu, as well as their peripheral types. The article proposes a unified metalanguage of Russian-Chinese paremiology, substantiates the possibility of using the term paremia as an umbrella concept for describing Chinese material in a comparative aspect, and formulates four principles for describing Chinese set expressions within the framework of contemporary paremiology. Conclusions. Chinese set expressions can be described within the framework of Russian-Chinese paremiology, provided that the specificity of the Chinese terminological tradition and the functional-semantic features of the material are taken into account. The development of a unified metalanguage contributes to a more accurate comparison of Russian and Chinese paremiological systems. The results of the study may be used in research on paremiology and linguoculturology.
Introduction. The 18th century occupies a special place in Mongolian medieval historiography. During this period, compilers of Mongolian chronicles departed from the canons of archaic tribal history and embraced individual creativity and critical understanding of events. While the 17th century witnessed only the emergence of these trends, and the 19th century their «ossification» and almost complete suppression by Buddhist thought, the 18th century represents the full-fledged process of establishing a national tradition of historical writing. Goals. The article seeks to analyze changes in medieval Mongolian historiography in the description of the history of the Mongol ancestral khans.Materials and methods. The article is based on Mongolian chronicles of the 17th–19th centuries, using methods of textual, comparative, and historical analysis. Results. The outcomes of the analysis show that in the 18th century, Mongolian chroniclers included critical reflections on the legends of the origins of the Mongol ancestral khans, Borte-Chino and Bodonchar, in their works. While 17th-century authors mostly cite all the myths about the khans known to them, often contradicting each other, 18th-century historians attempt to reconcile these myths, select those that seem most accurate, and explain the contradictions. In the 19th century, these myths gradually faded from the attention of historians, whose interest shifted to Buddhist ideas. Amid these evolutions, the myth of Bodonchar’s origin from a ray of light remains the most persistent, perceived by chroniclers as a reflection of the indigenous beliefs of the nomads of Central and East Asia about the nature of their ancestral khans.
Introduction. The present article provides insights into the ethnogonic myth of the Tsoros (Choros) nobility from historical and political perspectives. Goals. The work attempts an analysis of related elements of the myth with evidence from history, ethnography, philology, genetics, etc. for interpretations of the set of messages intertwined within the narrative and addressed to other Oirat and related/neighboring ethnopolitical groups. Materials and methods. The study focuses on cross-disciplinary sources, including Kalmyk historical chronicles, ethnographic data from works of P. S. Pallas, G. N. Potanin, S. P. Baldaev, Ts. B. Tsydendambaev and others. Methodologically, it rests on an interdisciplinary approach, with tools of systemic analysis, historical and linguistic reconstruction. Results. The work attempts to investigate folklore and historical elements as keys to understanding a set of messages once included into the myth’s structure. So, further consideration of the image of Bukha-Noyon and related plots and elements makes it possible to presume the latter might have shared common genesis with Bӧӧ-Khan of the Oirat within ethnopolitical groups of Eurasian nomads in the preceding period. Furthermore, this sets ground to identify some elements of the Oirat myth in natural and historical landscapes of the Buryat. Finally, the sacred Barkhan Uula is viewed as the place where the Tsoros progenitor was found and enthroned according to the text by B. Ya. Vladimirtsov, and altn tawzn širä can thus be understood as ‘golden altar on the elevated slope of mount [Baragkhan]’. Genetic, historical and linguistic evidence makes it possible to draw parallels between the Barghut, Naiman, Oghuz and Oirat that result in correspondences between three of four ancestral Oirat tribes — and those of the Toquz / Sekiz Oghuz. In this relation, efforts and messages of the Tsoros can sound as declaration of Sekiz Oghuz (Naiman) renaissance and even restoration of the khaganate-el. Meanwhile, Yoboghon-Mergen is consistently revisited as one with the title of Yabghu and the plot serve as reinterpreted history of how the Uyghur Khaganate helped the Tang Dynasty suppress mass uprisings with the archetypal figure of general Pugu Huaien. Finally, the very name of Bӧӧ-Khan seems to provoke a hint at Genghis Khan’s son-in-law Boyaohe of the Ongud, which made them equal to the Khoid princes who were actually in-laws of imperial Mongol rulers.
Introduction. The family acts as a sensitive indicator of large-scale social shifts, manifesting macro-processes onto the level of everyday practices. Amidst the declared course towards protecting traditional values and the objective transformation of the private sphere, there is a need for a theoretical understanding of the ongoing changes: whether they represent adaptation, conservation, or a fundamental breakdown of the institution. Goals. The article attempts a theoretical and methodological analysis into the concept of “transformation” and demonstrate the potential of classical and specialized sociological theories for studying changes in the institution of family, taking into account ethnocultural specifics. Materials and methods. The theoretical basis comprises the works of foreign (P. Sztompka, A. Giddens) and Russian (N. I. Lapin, V. A. Yadov, T. I. Zaslavskaya, T. A. Gurko, A. R. Mikheeva, A. B. Sinelnikov) sociologists. The study employs methods of theoretical analysis, adaptation of macrosociological concepts to the micro-level, and a comparative regional approach based on the examples of the republics of Kalmykia, Buryatia, Bashkortostan, and the North Caucasus regions. Results. It is shown that the transformation of family is not reduced to superficial modification (transmutation) or conservation (reproduction), but represents a change in the type of social system. The synthesis of macro-theories and specialized concepts reveal that in ethnocultural regions, global trends (individualization, deinstitutionalization) are refracted through local norms, kinship networks, and religious mentality. It is substantiated that for ethnoses of the collectivist type, the transition to an individualistic model is deeply traumatic, and gender and marriage strategies are characterized by the formation of hybrid contracts, the asynchrony of the modernization of public and private spaces, and a trend towards a return to endogamy as a defensive strategy. The ethnocultural specificity of transformation is expressed not in “lagging behind” all-Russian trends, but in their specific rethinking, generating stable hybrid forms of family life. The research results prove the necessity of developing context-sensitive social and demographic policies that take into account the gap between federal macro-institutions and local meso-norms.
Introduction. High-altitude conditions are a factor of natural selection that affects the physiological and genetic mechanisms of human adaptation to hypoxia. One of the genes involved in the regulation of the cellular response to oxygen deficiency is HIF1A. The rs11549465 polymorphic variant of this gene results in a Pro582Ser substitution and is characterized by functional differences, which makes it of interest for study in population and adaptive contexts. Goals. The study aims to investigate the distribution of alleles and genotypes of the rs11549465 polymorphic variant of the HIF1A gene in Balkar and Karachay populations, and to assess its possible association with adaptation to high-altitude hypoxia. Materials and methods. DNA isolated from peripheral blood samples of representatives of two populations of the North Caucasus has been used as research material: Balkars (N=100) and Karachays (N=99). A comparative analysis of the frequencies of alleles and genotypes of rs11549465 performed between the studied populations. Results. The C allele predominated in both studied populations, while the frequency of the T allele varied between the samples. Statistically significant differences were identified between the Balkar and Karachay populations. The distribution of the T allele did not demonstrate a direct dependence on the historical association of the populations with high-altitude territories. Conclusions. The results obtained indicate interpopulation differentiation of rs11549465 among the studied peoples of the North Caucasus. The identified differences do not allow a causal relationship between rs11549465 and adaptation to high-altitude conditions to be established; however, the functional significance of this variant indicates the potential for further investigation of its possible role in adaptation to hypoxia.
Introduction. This article analyzes the economic transformations in Mongolia in the 1920s. The key event of this period was the signing of the Agreement on the Establishment of Friendly Relations between the RSFSR and Mongolia on November 5, 1921, along with three additional protocols. These protocols formalized the Soviet side’s renunciation of the Tsarist legacy (privileges and concessions) and the allocation of a loan of 1 million rubles for the development of the Mongolian economy. The article’s title contains a quote from correspondence between B. N. Melnikov, head of the Far East Department of the People’s Commissariat of Foreign Affairs, and A. N. Vasiliev, the USSR Plenipotentiary Representative to Mongolia (September 1924). The choice of this quote underscores the Soviet leadership’s desire for an objective and realistic assessment of the situation in Mongolia in order to provide the most effective support for the reforms that were being carried out in the country. It is important to note that during the period under review, Mongolia formally remained part of China and only gained full sovereignty after the end of World War II. Materials. The article draws on materials from the State Archive of the Russian Federation, Russian State Archive of Sociopolitical History, and Russian State Archive of the Economy, as well as published collections of documents and scholarly literature. The study focuses on only certain aspects of the country’s economic situation and Soviet-Mongolian relations. Results. To address complex socioeconomic challenges, the Mongolian People’s Party, with the support of the Soviet Union and the Comintern, initiated radical transformations in traditional Mongolian nomadic and Buddhist society and created the preconditions for the formation of a new model of public administration. In the 1920s, the country was characterized as an agrarian country with a mixed economy dominated by foreign capital, with an underdeveloped agriculture and its own industrial base. A key step in economic development was the establishment of the Mongolian Central Cooperative in 1921. In the early years of people’s rule, it served as a national economic body designed to stop the plundering of national resources and lay the foundations for economic growth. Its importance subsequently grew and strengthened, and by 1932 it had become a leading player in the country’s national economy. The opening of the Mongolian Industrial and Commercial Bank had a positive impact on the country’s financial and credit system; national currency tugrik was introduced, foreign capital was virtually eliminated, and trade and economic ties between the USSR and Mongolia expanded significantly.
Introduction. The paper publishes information about burials of the Golden Horde era (random finds and excavation materials) obtained in the northwestern territories of Stavropol Governorate at the end of the 19th century. Goals. The study aimsto to summarize information about artifacts of the Golden Horde era discovered in the territories of Medvezhensky Uyezd and Bolshederbetovsky Ulus of Stavropol Governorate at the end of the 19th century. To facilitate this, the study shall examine random finds in the given territory and a late nomadic burial site, which was investigated by S. A. Solovyov in 1899 in the vicinity of the village of Letnitskoye, as well as identify their cultural and historical attribution. Materials. Archaeological material compiled from a number of random finds and burial inventory from the vicinity of the village of Letnitskoye consists of items made of iron, bronze, silver and glass dating back to the Golden Horde era. The funeral inventory consists of remnants of defensive armor (shell and helmet) and offensive weapons (spear and bow), objects of Golden Horde toreutics, bronze mirrors and jewelry. Results. Among the random finds, a fragmented helmet with an open-type camail stands out, which has broad analogies in the monuments of the 7th–13th centuries. The burial, examined by S. A. Solovyov in 1899 in the vicinity of the village of Letnitskoye, was located in a barrow of the Middle Bronze Age. A woman was probably buried in a simple pit oriented in the eastern direction. This type of funeral rite has analogies in the Golden Horde monuments of the Volga-Don steppes and Central Ciscaucasia. The bronze mirror depicting two human figures («sages») and two dragons is a replica of Chinese mirrors and has analogies in the monuments of the Lower Volga region. Such mirrors date back to the middle of the 13th – 14th centuries. The earring in the form of a question mark dates back to the middle of the 13th – early 14th centuries. The complexes analyzed in the paper characterize the culture of the nomads of the interfluve of the Western Manych, the Greater Egorlyk and the Middle Egorlyk in the middle of the 13th – early 14th centuries. They probably reflect the cultural ties of the local population with the urban centers of the Don region and the Lower Volga region.
Introduction. Issues related to the introduction of the position of Chief Pristav of the Kalmyk people have been covered in a number of works, but some aspects of this topic remain insufficiently developed. Goals. The article seeks to analyze the conditions for the introduction of the position of Chief Pristav of the Kalmyk people, to determine the tasks faced by the latter, and to compare the recommendations and instructions given when it was decided to appoint collegiate adviser Makarov as Chief Pristav “for managing the affairs of Kalmyks, Kabardians, Trukhmenians, Nogais and other Asian peoples,” and N. I. Strakhov as Chief Pristav of the Kalmyk people. Materials and methods. The official documents adopted in 1800–1802 and the materials of the I-1 collection of the National Archive of the Republic of Kalmykia have served as sources for the study. The work applies an integrated approach to the study of sources, a comparative historical analysis is carried out. Results. The introduction of a two-layer pristav system in 1800 was associated with the strengthening of the management system of the peripheral peoples and, above all, with the difficult situation in the Kalmyk uluses, the migration of individual groups over considerable distances. Establishment of a separate post of Chief Pristav of the Kalmyk people in 1801 was determined by the confrontation between the Governor appointed by the imperial decree and landlords of the Kalmyk uluses, the remoteness of Kalmyk-inhabited territories and the insufficient staff of the Chief Pristav “over the Asian peoples”. The guidelines given to Makarov and N. I. Strakhov upon assuming office, as samples of a certain type of official documentation, contained general points, but the instructions to the Chief Pristav of the Kalmyk people included special tasks. N. I. Strakhov’s dismissal in 1804 was a consequence of the ambiguous attitude of both the Astrakhan authorities and the Kalmyk landlords towards him, who were dissatisfied with his position on the fate of the viceroyalty and the reforms he proposed.
Introduction. The article explores the potential of sources of personal origin in constructing the image of the Asian periphery of the Russian Empire. Goals. The present work aims to reveal the perceptions of church ministers about Turkestan Krai based on the personal text of priest V. Ilarionov, who represents Turkestan in the system of coordinates and categories ‘own’ / ‘foreign’, which are the basis for the reception of the region in the power and socio-political discourse. Materials and methods. The work focuses on the priest’ diary of published in 1906–1911 by the Turkestanskie eparkhial'nye vedomosti (‘Turkestan Diocesan Newsletter’). The personal diary as a source, mastered in the article by the method of disourse analysis and widely used in modern source study, opens prospects for a more complete description of imperial projects of development across the eastern peripheries, as well as dynamically changing perceptions of the authorities and society about administrative tasks in Turkestan Krai and some ways of their implementation. Results. Rev. V. Ilarionov’s certain perceptions of Turkestan in the early twentieth century have been revealed: markers used by the author of the diary to identify and separate the ‘own’ from the ‘strange’; signs of these categories in the reception of the Russian Orthodox Church figure. The components of the image of Turkestan, in the representations of the priest’s diary, as well as the factors that influenced the construction of the image of the region in a long-term perspective have been determined. Conclusions. The research establishes that the basis of V. Ilarionov’s representations of Turkestan is the then image of Turkestan. Rev. Ilarionov’s perception of Turkestan Krai was based on the inertial perception of the region in the rhetoric of enlightenment-progressive ideologies, which implied ‘reading the other’ as an uncivilised subaltern with regard to which active cultural regression be possible. At the same time, the immersion in the problems of administrative, economic and socio-cultural everyday life in Turkestan led to the reformatting of ideas about territorial organisation, population, and communicative practices within the boundaries of the Russian Empire. The image of Turkestan created by the author went beyond the categorical imperative ‘own’ / ‘foreign’, acquired features of dynamism, transformed into a multilayered and contradictory intellectual construct, which is largely indicative of the ambiguity of the Orientalist approach in assessing the eastern policy of the Russian Empire in the early twentieth century.
Introduction. The ethnic history studies on ‘frontier peoples’ who had inhabited territories north of China is a traditionally actual topic for the world and Chinese historiographies. However, attention to certain ethnic groups was and remains uneven. While numerous studies are devoted to many famous ancient and medieval peoples and ethnic groups, studies on the history of the Ruan-Ruan ethnic entity are conducted in quite a poor and inadequate way. Goals. The article seeks to show how modern Chinese scholars, using their solid and systematic academic approaches, tried to fill in the existing research gaps and to present a deeper and more complete picture of historical exchanges between the ethnic entities of Ruan-Ruan, Han Chinese and other neighboring peoples. Materials and methods. Using the methods of historiographical and source analyses (based on dynastic histories and other texts), the paper shows that these studies require a proper exploration of Chinese-language written sources and previous historiography, including publications of Chinese scholars. The article is based on the Chinese-language Study on Relations between the Northern Wei and Ruan-Ruan (1988), published in Taipei by Pan Guojian. This monograph reflects the academic level of the Chinese and world scholarship in the 1980s, but it became one of the main historiographical sources of the late 20th century and an important milestone in Ruan-Ruan history studies. The article analyzes the whole range of critical arguments towards the controversial and ‘groundless’ (according to Pan Guojian) hypothesis of the Ruan-Ruan’s Mongolian ethnicity put forward by a number of preceding Chinese, Japanese and Western scholars. This historiographical review will be continued in the following paper focused on the criticism of hypotheses about the Turkic, Xiongnu and Tatar origin of Ruan-Ruan people, as well as the theory about their Donghu-Xianbei origins, shared by Pan Guojian personally.
Introduction. The article attempts an analysis into the graphic and phonetic features of the word list ‘Tatarica [oburben Caʃan]’ from the manuscript dictionary of Johann Eberhard Fischer (1768), hosted on the LingvoDoc platform. Goals. The study seeks to identify historical-phonetic patterns of the Trans-Kazan dialect of the Tatar language in the 18th century through comparison of the word list data with modern Standard Tatar, dialectal materials, the dictionaries of Gerhard Friedrich Müller and Peter Simon Pallas, and Proto-Turkic reconstructions. Results. It has been established that the vocalic system of the source combines archaic and innovative features: Proto-Turkic *ö and *ü in the first syllable predominantly shift to u, whereas the Volga vowel shift of *i and *u is almost absent; changes of *e, *o, and *ü are only partially implemented. Residual rounded vowels are attested in the second syllable, along with numerous violations of labial and palatal harmony, indicating that regular vowel harmony had not yet fully developed in the period under study. By contrast, the consonant system displays innovations (in the development of Proto-Turkic *j-, *ŋ, *č, and the voicing of intervocalic consonants) that coincide with features of modern Kazan dialects. A previously undescribed phenomenon was also identified: final aspiration -h after -a, which experimental phonetic analysis has shown to be present in contemporary Kazan dialects. It is concluded that the word list reflects living spoken language and captures a stage of the 18th-century Kazan dialect of Tatar, making it possible to date a number of phonetic innovations. The results refine our understanding of the phonetic history of Tatar dialects and demonstrate the high value of Fischer’s dictionary as a source for dialectological research.
Introduction. The Armenian-Mongolian dictionary from Chapter 32 of the History of Armenia by Kirakos Gandzaketsi (13th century) is an oldest source on the medieval Mongolian language. It has been repeatedly published and commented on since the mid-19th century. However, the manuscript tradition of the dictionary (copies of the 16th–19th centuries) has experienced no systematic phylogenetic revision. Goals. The paper is aimed to construct a phylogenetic probability tree for manuscripts’ protographs and revise the obtained results through independent methods. Materials and methods. A total of 21 available copies of the History have been examined. A table of 248 lines with 58 translation equivalents (49 variable ones) with Proto-Mongolian and Proto-Turkic reconstructions has been compiled. Distances between the lists have been calculated using a weighted feature matrix (weight = 1 − proportion of copies with most frequent reading). The Tree’s pattern follows that of the neighbor-joining (NJ) method, rooted by the minimum phonetic distance to proto-forms; node support is that of Bootstrap (500 pseudo-samples). The results have been additionally checked using the maximum parsimony, Neighbor-Net and Leave-one-out methods. Results. The first part of the article describes the biography of Kirakos Gandzaketsi and analyzes in detail the history of the research and publication “The History of Armenia”. The manuscript tradition of the “History” begins in the 16th century, with the earliest copy dating back to 1594 — more than three centuries from the time of its composition. This inevitably affected the text, especially the spelling of foreign words, which could have changed not only as a result of scribal errors or dialectal transitions, but also as a result of deliberate editorial work. A description of the transliteration used to prepare the research material is provided. The second part of the article examines the results of constructing a phylogenetic tree, as well as the results of its verification using various statistical methods.
Introduction. The study examines the contemporary features of the phenomenon of digital nomadism across the states of Southeast Asia. Goals. The article aims to conduct a comparative analysis of the most popular countries for digital nomadism in the region, namely Thailand, Vietnam, and Indonesia. Methodology. Digital nomadism is defined as a form of remote employment that combines professional activity with a mobile lifestyle made possible by the development of digital technologies. Here, the authors analyze the list of main infrastructural factors that influence the choice of a country in the region for digital nomads to live in. In particular, attention is paid to the analysis of the features of migration legislation and recent amendments to it, the development of special visas for remote workers (so-called ‘digital nomad visas’), tax regulations and taxation exemptions, and the possibilities of using alternative financial instruments (cryptocurrencies). Results. The conclusions are made about the need to improve the legal framework and further develop a digital infrastructure focused on mobile specialists, and general recommendations are aimed at maintaining and increasing the attractiveness of the countries of the region for remote employment among expats.
Introduction. The article considers urbanization trends, migration processes and features of demographic development of the cities of Kazakhstan from the late 1990s to the present. Particular attention is paid to the role of internal migration and natural population movement in shaping the demographic potential of cities of different ranks: megacities as key centers of migration; regional centers with a combined growth model; cities with natural demographic growth characterized by zero or negative migration balance; small and single-industry towns with depressive demographic dynamics. Goals. The article seeks to analyze urbanization processes, migration dynamics and the resulting demographic problems in the cities of Kazakhstan from the late 1990s to the present day. Materials and methods. The study focuses on statistical data from the Bureau of National Statistics (Agency for Strategic Planning and Reforms of the Republic of Kazakhstan), results of the national population censuses of 1999, 2009, 2021. The methodological basis of the study is formed by the principles of historicism, systematicity, and comprehensive analysis, allowing us to consider urbanization as a multifactorial socio-demographic process with long-term impacts on the structure and dynamics of the population of the Republic of Kazakhstan. The demographic component of the study is represented by the methods of demographic analysis; an interdisciplinary approach combining the methods of historical demography, social geography, and socio-economic analysis has also been used. Results. The study reveals differences in levels of urbanization and demographic dynamics across the cities of Kazakhstan. The analysis shows that urbanization processes are characterized by significant territorial heterogeneity due to socio-economic, migration, and demographic factors. It has been established that population growth in the country is uneven and concentrates mainly in large cities and agglomeration centers. At the same time, in a number of regions, small towns, and single-industry towns processes of population stagnation or decline are observed, which has formed an imbalance in the settlement system. The identified differences suggest the existence of several types of cities, differing in the nature of demographic development and ratios, natural and migration growth, as well as the degree of involvement in national urbanization processes. The results demonstrate the complexity and multifaceted nature of contemporary urbanization in Kazakhstan and serve as basis for further analysis of the spatial and socio-demographic consequences of urban population growth.
Introduction. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the Regulations on Peasant Chiefs in Steppe Territories were adopted. At the stage of development and discussion of the bill, problems in the administrative management system were revealed. Goals. The article aims to analyze the reasons for the introduction of the institution of peasant chiefs at the territorial level. To facilitate this, the paper shall consider the problems of organizing local governments, power relations between the center and steppe regions, and the government’s individual policy in the formation of the bureaucratic apparatus. Materials and methods. The materials for the study are documents from the Russian State Historical Archive (St. Petersburg, Russian Federation), namely the Collection of Zemstvo Department (Imperial Ministry of Internal Affairs), file titled ‘On the Introduction of Regulations on Peasant Chiefs in Steppe Regions’. Results. Since the late 1880s, the flow of immigrants to steppe regions had been increasing, which significantly changed the socio-economic situation. This required changes in administrative management. In order to strengthen supervision, zemstvo district chiefs were introduced in the central provinces of the Russian Empire; in the territory of Siberia those were peasant chiefs. In steppe regions, including Turgai — by analogy with the implemented reforms — the institution of peasant chiefs was introduced. Excessive burdening of district chiefs with a wide range of duties did not give any opportunity to qualitatively control the internal management of Kazakhs. The lack of public administration among Russian settlers, constant conflicts between them and the local population prompted the petition to establish the institution of peasant chiefs.
Introduction. In the first half of the 19th century, a set of measures to prevent mass cattle deaths were developed in the central provinces of the Russian state. The measures also involved livestock farms of the indigenous peoples of Siberia who were gradually being integrated into the imperial space. Goals. The article seeks to analyze measures against cattle deaths in the first half of the 19th century which were developed by the central authorities of the Russian Empire and implemented by the authorities of Yenisei Governorate jointly with the steppe dumas ― local government bodies of Minusinsk and Achinsk natives (Khakasses since 1917). Materials and methods. The study focuses on archival materials from the National Archive of the Republic of Khakassia. The historical comparative method makes it possible to compare the problems that arose in the process of overcoming cattle mortality in the central Russian provinces and in one Siberian province ― Yenisei Governorate. The historical genetic method proves instrumental in establishing cause-and-effect relations and patterns in the spread of livestock diseases in Russian provinces, as well as identifying the causes behind their occurrence in Khakass nomadic households. Results. Livestock was the foundation of material well-being for nomadic peoples of Siberia. At the same time, the Government of the Russian Empire considered livestock breeding as a most important occupation for non-Russian populations on which state revenues depended. In the first half of the 19th century, livestock mortality was tackled at the central, provincial, and local levels. Non-Russian bodies (Khakass steppe dumas) were obliged to prevent livestock mortality caused by lack of feed, low temperatures, and disease. The article examines the problems encountered in steppe homelands during the implementation of livestock mortality control measures developed by provincial and district authorities. Conclusions. The materials of the steppe dumas indicate that in the first half of the 19th century livestock losses at Khakass farms in Yenisei Province were caused by harsh winters, lack of feed, and traditional livestock management practices (free grazing, no corrals). The term epizootic which refers to mass infectious animal diseases is absent in documents from that time.
Introduction. The conquest of Central Asia by Mongolian troops and their victory over the Khorezmians were completed in 1221. The subjugated lands passed to the second son of Genghis Khan — Chagatai, and the Chagatai Ulus was formed. The system of state structure in it was preserved similar to that which functioned in the Great Mongol Empire proper. The Ulus was headed by khan, the administrative apparatus consisted of viziers and was divided into right and left wings. In Turko-Mongol medieval states, viziers or noyons were representatives of clans and performed not only administrative but also military functions of power. Subsequently, they headed combat units — hundreds and thousands. Genghis Khan’s entourage included both the bureaucratic apparatus and his wives and offsprings, who played important political and economic roles. Sometimes wives performed regent functions during interregnum periods, especially when power was inherited by children at a young age. Women made a significant contribution to interstate relations through dynastic marriages. Goals. The research objective is to decipher information about Chagatai Khan and his entourage based on data from five copies of Muʿizz al-ansāb. These sources include messages about his status, period of rule, death, and his entourage — viziers and wives. Materials and methods. The article engages in a thorough process of gathering, interpreting, and scrutinizing various original documents. This work was based on analyses into five previously unknown copies of Muʿizz al-ansāb, one of which comes from the National Library of France, two copies are kept in the British Library in London (Great Britain), and two more — at the Maulana Azad Library, Aligarh Muslim University in India. The research methods include linguistic-relativistic analysis, on the basis of which the method of transmission and perception of text by its native speakers in a medieval environment is investigated. Comparative-contrastive analysis of factual information about Chagatai is used, and a historical-typological approach is applied. Results and conclusions. The work shall translate and analyze five copies of the original narrative, and deliver unique information about the life and activities of Khan Chagatai and his entourage. A comparison of data about Chagatai from the five copies of the Mu'izz al-Ansāb reveals similarities and significant discrepancies. All the lists confirm his years of reign; most of them date his death to 640 AH, while Indian no. 42 indicates 638 AH, which is most likely an error or a late insertion. London no. 467 and Indian no. 41 expand the geography of the Ulus (from the Uyghurs to Bukhara and Samarkand). Sufi vocabulary, an episode with Sheikh Muhammad, and a reference to Mirkhond’s Rawzat al-Safa indicate a late Islamization of the text. Chagatai’s entourage appears to be an ethnically diverse society, with an elite formed on the basis of merit and personal qualities. This data shall undoubtedly expand and supplement the existing knowledge about the Great Mongol Empire and about the Chagatai Ulus, in particular.
Introduction. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, residents of Austria-Hungary actively migrated to the Russian Empire. This migration was labour-related, and its participants were representatives of different nationalities, social classes, and professions. At the turn of the 20th century, the number of Austro-Hungarian natives within the Russian Empire exceeded 100,000 individuals. Goals. The article aims to study the labour migration of Habsburg subjects to the southern Asian peripheries of the Russian Empire, specifically the Caucasus and Central Asia. To facilitate this, the paper shall determine the preconditions for this migration movement, its scale, national and professional composition, results and significance. Materials and methods. The study is based on an analysis of various sources, namely: materials from the first All-Russian Census of 1897, legal acts defining the status of migrants, and documents from the State Archive of Stavropol Krai. Results. The labour migration of residents of the Habsburg Monarchy to the Caucasus and Central Asia was linked to a shortage of skilled workers and specialists in those regions amid the onset of capitalist modernisation. The movement to the Caucasus consisted of two waves — the relocation of Czech peasant colonists to the Black Sea coast in the late 1860s and 1870s, and the subsequent multinational labour migration to the North Caucasus and Transcaucasia at the turn of the century to come. Austro-Hungarian settlers appeared later in Central Asia, at the end of the 19th century, and in much smaller numbers. Conclusions. According to the 1897 Census, 2,573 natives of the Habsburg Monarchy resided in the Caucasus, and 144 more — in Central Asia. In both places, most of them were ethnic Czechs but there were also Slovaks, Austrian Germans, Hungarians, Romanians and people of other nationalities. The immigrants from Austria-Hungary belonged to various social and professional groups, such as industrial and agricultural workers, peasants, craftsmen, servants, technical specialists, teachers, musicians, etc. The conditions for adaptation in the southern periphery of the empire were difficult but most of the migrants coped with this task successfully. They settled there permanently, found their economic niches, and some of them became Russian subjects. Austro-Hungarian migrants made a positive contribution to the economic and cultural development of the Caucasus and Central Asia in the pre-revolutionary period.
