Background Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a serious global health problem driven by antibiotic overuse and misuse in various parts, contributing to the emergence of resistant microorganisms. Catheter-associated urinary tract infections (CAUTIs) represent a predominant cause of healthcare-associated infections and are progressively complicated by antimicrobial resistance (AMR). In resource constrained settings like Basra, Iraq, the lack of region-specific genomic evidence exacerbates the risk of disseminating multidrug-resistant pathogens, posing significant biosecurity concerns. Objective This is the first study set in Basra city to establish the molecular and phylogenetic baseline for uropathogens in this region to enhance biosafety protocols and clinical outcomes. Methods A multicenter cross-sectional study was conducted on 140 catheterized ICU patients across five teaching hospitals in Basra, Iraq. Bacterial characterization was accomplished using standard microbiological methods and confirmed via 16S rRNA sequencing. Phylogeny was mapped using IQ-TREE and antimicrobial susceptibility testing was conducted using the VITEK 2 system according to the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) guidelines. Statistical associations were assessed using Chi square, Odds Ratio (OR), multivariate logistic regression analysis, One- Way ANOVA and Fisher’s exact tests. Results Significant bacteriuria was confirmed in 49.28% of cases. Klebsiella pneumoniae (21.7%) and Escherichia coli (18.8%) were the leading pathogens. Twelve novel sequence types (IQB001–IQB0012) were recognised and registered in GenBank. Statistical analysis revealed a “Symptom-Culture Gap,” where clinical symptoms were insufficient to anticipate infection (P > 0.05), while strong association was observed between prolonged catheterization (>7 days) and infection risk. Alarmingly, phenotypic resistance profiling of the 12 novel sequence types revealed that resistance to carbapenems reached 80%, while cephalosporin resistance approached 100%, with tigecycline retaining the highest activity (60% susceptibility). Conclusion The emergence of novel, multidrug-resistant (MDR) sequence types in Basra’s ICUs emphasises an urgent need for improved biosecurity surveillance. These findings provide a molecular blueprint for tracking the distribution of resistant genotypes. Employing genomic-based biosafety measures is crucial to mitigate the risk of regional outbreaks and to preserve the efficiency of last-resort antibiotics.
Background Nosocomial pneumonia caused by multidrug-resistant (MDR) respiratory pathogens remains a major threat to patient safety and hospital biosafety, necessitating the development of sustainable and effective antimicrobial alternatives. Objective This study aimed to synthesise and evaluate the antimicrobial efficacy of green-synthesised palladium–gold bimetallic nanoparticles (Pd–Au BMNPs) and their alginate-encapsulated nanocomposites against MDR respiratory pathogens. Methods Pd–Au BMNPs were synthesised by adopting an eco-friendly approach using aqueous ajwain leaf and clove extracts, followed by alginate encapsulation to form Pd–Au bimetallic alginate nanocomposites. Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, dynamic light scattering, high-resolution transmission electron microscopy and high-resolution scanning electron microscopy were used to characterise the synthesised materials. Zone of inhibition and minimum inhibitory concentration assays were used to assess antibacterial activity against Streptococcus pneumoniae, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Haemophilus parainfluenzae. One-way analysis of variance was used to determine statistical significance. Results Pd–Au BMNPs exhibited inhibition zones of 13–14 mm and showed dose-dependent activity, with >93% growth inhibition at 100 µg mL−1. Alginate nanocomposites retained comparable activity (11–14 mm). Statistical analysis confirmed significant effects (p < 0.05). Conclusion Pd–Au nanomaterials demonstrate strong antimicrobial potential against MDR pathogens, supporting their application as biosafe antimicrobial agents, although further validation is required.
Background The year 2025 marked a significant point of consolidation and expansion for biosecurity education globally, with biosecurity education increasingly recognised as a foundational element of global health security and biological risk governance. The year also marked the first time that the concept of an International Biological Security Education Network (IBSEN) was formally recognised and supported at the international level within the framework of negotiations under the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC), ahead of its Tenth Review Conference in 2027. Objective This article examines developments in biosecurity education up to 2025, with a particular focus on the outcomes of discussions at sessions of the Working Group on the Strengthening of the Biological Weapons Convention in Geneva in 2025. Methods The study systematically analysed all published material on biological security and biological security education under the BTWC and comprehensively assessed the most influential programmes and initiatives up to 2025. Literature and policy materials were collected and examined qualitatively. Results Drawing on discussions concerning the biological security education landscape up to 2025, the article further explores possible paths forward, particularly regarding the development of an IBSEN. Suggestions are provided on how persistent critical gaps in global biosecurity education can be addressed at different levels. Conclusion A collaborative approach, such as developing an IBSEN, would be the most practical way forward.
Introduction: Recombinant probiotic microorganisms that express immunoregulatory proteins are considered promising tools for the local correction of inflammatory bowel diseases. However, their practical application requires a comprehensive biosafety assessment, including an analysis of microbiological purity, toxicity, genetic stability and the potential risk of horizontal gene transfer. Objective: The aim was to perform a comprehensive experimental biosafety assessment of a biocorrective agent based on the recombinant L. plantarum 8PAЗ (B-11007) (pLacDualIL10/IL22) strain, which produces interleukins IL-10 and IL-22. Methods: Microbiological purity, haemolysis, antibiotic sensitivity, biogenic amines, strain viability and activity after lyophilisation, acute toxicity in rats and calves, colonisation and genetic properties were assessed. Studies were carried out in three biological replicates. Statistical processing was performed using Student’s t-test for two-group comparisons, and one-way ANOVA with Tukey’s post hoc test was performed for multiple-group comparisons (p < 0.05). Results: No foreign microflora were detected in any batch of the biocorrective agent (detection limit <10 CFU/g). The strain was characterised by γ-haemolysis, and it retained a typical antibiotic susceptibility profile and did not produce biogenic amines (less than 0.5 mg/kg). After lyophilisation, the viability recovery rate was 72%, and after 12 months of storage, the viable cell concentration remained at 1.9 × 1012 CFU/g. IL-10 and IL-22 concentrations after recovery were 47.3 ± 5.2 and 38.6 ± 4.1 pg/mL, respectively. In an acute toxicity study in rats and calves, no lethal outcomes, clinical signs of intoxication or statistically significant changes in haematological and biochemical parameters were detected (p > 0.05). The recombinant strain demonstrated transient intestinal colonisation without signs of long-term persistence. Analysis of the plasmid construct confirmed the absence of the tra and mob genes and the oriT site, while modelling of the gastrointestinal environment revealed degradation of over 90% of the plasmid DNA during the gastric stage and the absence of intact DNA after the intestinal phase. Conclusion: The biocorrective agent meets microbiological purity requirements, exhibits high strain integrity and lacks acute toxicity (hazard class IV). The available evidence suggests that it has a low risk of horizontal transfer of genetic material.
Background Laboratory biosafety and biosecurity (BSBS) measures are vital for addressing global biological health security threats. Tanzania conducted the first Joint External Evaluation (JEE) of core capacities under the International Health Regulations (2005) in 2016, highlighting limited capacity in BSBS indicators. Objective This study was designed to assess and compare biosafety and biosecurity implementation across medical, research, veterinary and blood transfusion centre laboratories in Tanzania to understand the progress of implementation and highlight the relative strengths of practices and variations. Methods The study was conducted in March 2021 across 57 laboratories in 10 regions using a checklist covering all levels of the laboratory network. The checklist comprised 24 BSBS categories. Data were analysed using Microsoft Excel. Results The overall performance of biosafety and biosecurity practices was 50.5%, with a range of 28.5% (veterinary laboratories) to 70.0% (NBTS laboratories). The category with the highest score was the laboratory storage area (81.0%), while the lowest score was obtained by physical work environment (17.0%). Of the 24 categories, only 8 (33.3%) scored above the minimum threshold and 55.0% scored at a satisfactory level. A majority of laboratories (28, 49.1%) scored < 55%, which was unsatisfactory. Only 1 (1.8%) laboratory scored, meeting most elements. The overall implementation was significantly higher for biosafety practices than for biosecurity practices (50.4% vs 28.8%, p = 0.004). Biosafety practices in medical laboratories (61%), NBTS laboratories (75%), national laboratories (65.5%), zonal laboratories (71.5%) and regional laboratories (67.6%) were found to be satisfactory (above the cut-off point). Only the national laboratories had a performance score (65.5%) above the minimum threshold. Conclusion BSBS implementation across laboratory networks in Tanzania is relatively low, with significant variation by laboratory type and level. The implementation of biosafety and biosecurity measures is unbalanced, with a greater focus on biosafety.
Background The coronavirus pandemic increased reliance on medical face masks as a first-line protective measure in healthcare settings, yet concerns remain regarding the quality of uncertified products circulating in the market. This study aimed to evaluate the protective performance of medical face masks used by healthcare workers in Iran against the requirements of EN 14683. Methods Ten brands of uncertified masks (Test Samples) and five certified masks (Reference Samples) were examined. Custom experimental test setups were developed to measure bacterial filtration efficiency (BFE) and differential pressure (Pa/cm2), and the morphology of the meltblown layer was analyzed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and ImageJ. According to EN 14683:2019 + AC:2019, Type I masks require bacterial filtration efficiency (BFE) ≥95%, whereas Type II masks require BFE ≥98%; both classes require differential pressure <40 Pa/cm2. Results The Test Samples showed lower BFE, lower quality factor, and less favorable meltblown structural characteristics than the Reference Samples. When evaluated against the Type I criterion, three out of ten Test Sample brands (30%) met the BFE requirement, while none met the Type II criterion of ≥98%. All Reference Samples satisfied the Type I criterion (BFE ≥95%), whereas only two Reference Sample brands met the Type II criterion (BFE ≥98%). Positive correlations were observed between BFE and meltblown grammage, whereas fiber diameter was negatively associated with porosity. Conclusions These findings highlight the critical role of meltblown layer quality and the importance of routine post–market surveillance to ensure healthcare worker protection. The results indicate that several uncertified masks used by healthcare workers do not provide consistent performance and should not be assumed to meet international medical mask standards.
Background Effective biorisk management (BRM) requires a competent workforce, whose competences are often validated through national or international professional certification programmes. Evidence remains limited regarding how participant engagement in preparatory courses influences success in certification exams and how these certifications translate into sustainable organizational improvements. Objective This study examines a virtual course’s effectiveness in preparing individuals for the Biorisk Management Professional Certification exam offered by the International Federation of Biosafety Associations (IFBA). It also evaluates certified professionals’ contributions to improving biosafety practices in their institutions across Pakistan. Methods Between 2022 and 2024, 443 professionals and students in 12 cohorts participated in this course, which consisted of weekly webinars, quizzes, and reading assignments. A follow-up survey conducted in 2025 assessed certified individuals’ contributions to improving BRM within their organizations. Results Out of 443 individuals, 311 attempted the exam, and 217 (70%) achieved a passing score, positioning Pakistan as a global leader with the highest number of certified professionals worldwide. In the course, participation in webinars emerged as a better predictor of success than weekly assignments and quizzes. The follow-up survey revealed the instrumental contributions of certified individuals, with 86.4% of participants increasing institutional awareness, 67.4% advising leadership, and over 60% implementing best practices. Many contributed to the development of policies, conducted safety compliance audits and inspections, and developed documentation for institutional biosafety practices and procedures. Conclusion These outcomes highlight the importance of competent and certified individuals in catalysing institutional change and bringing sustainable system-level improvements to the safety culture of organizations.
Background The biosafety cabinet (BSC) is a primary engineering control used to contain aerosols when handling infectious agents. However, empirical data systematically evaluating the risk of cross-contamination under different operational scenarios—particularly when shared use is necessary—remain limited. This knowledge gap has practical implications for laboratory biosafety protocols, risk assessment and the validation of standard operating procedures. Objective This study aimed to systematically evaluate the risk of viral cross-contamination under three distinct workflow conditions – (1) simultaneous operation in separate BSCs, (2) sequential operation in a single BSC with intermediate decontamination and (3) simultaneous operation in a single BSC (a practice generally discouraged in laboratory guidelines) – to provide empirical evidence for biosafety guidelines. Methods A model system with three viruses (vesicular stomatitis virus expressing GFP, yellow fever virus 17D and bat coronavirus WIV1) was used on Vero E6 cells. Virus stocks (0.5 mL) were subjected to 100 cycles of vigorous pipetting to simulate aerosol generation, during which cell culture plates were left uncovered to allow for potential aerosol deposition. After 4 days of incubation, the supernatant was harvested for RNA extraction and qRT-PCR using virus-specific primers; each sample was tested for all viruses to assess cross-contamination. Experiments were performed in triplicate, and the limit of detection (LOD) analysis confirmed the assay sensitivity. Results Dedicated physical separation effectively prevented any detectable cross-contamination across all replicates. Sequential processing with an established wipe-and-UV decontamination protocol also successfully prevented carryover contamination, as confirmed by negative qRT-PCR results in cell cultures and environmental swabs. The LOD analysis demonstrated that 10 TCID50 units were consistently detectable (Ct < 35) for all three viruses. Notably, even during the simultaneous open-tube manipulation of two viruses within a single BSC, no nucleic acid crossover was detected under the specific conditions tested. Conclusion Our findings support a tiered risk assessment for BSC use: physical separation is the optimal strategy; sequential use with established decontamination is a viable alternative when resources are constrained; simultaneous operation is not recommended. The primary risk in the simultaneous operation scenario stems not from failure of engineering controls under ideal use but from the dramatically elevated potential for human procedural error. These results reinforce the need for integrated engineering and administrative controls to minimise human error in virological work.
Background Biosecurity is essential for preventing the introduction and spread of infectious diseases in livestock production. Despite the well-established benefits of biosecurity, the implementation remains inconsistent across production systems. Objective This study reviewed studies on biosecurity-supporting measures, focusing on training, coaching, and sensor technologies, and incorporated findings from a farmer survey on availability and accessibility of biosecurity-supporting measures. Methods A scoping review of 29 peer-reviewed studies was conducted following PRISMA‑ScR guidelines. Information about the availability of relevant biosecurity-supporting measures was collected between October 2023 and May 2024 on 390 farms across 11 different animal species–production system combinations in seven European countries. Results Training and coaching were the most frequently studied biosecurity-supporting measures, whereas sensor technologies received less attention. Coaching and training were associated with improved biosecurity scores, reduced antimicrobial use, and increased farmer engagement. Sensor technologies showed potential for monitoring compliance but raised ethical and practical concerns. Survey results indicated that although many farmers considered themselves well informed, notable gaps remained, particularly in extensive and small-scale systems, in terms of engagement with available information sources and the adoption of supporting measures. Hygiene protocols were the most widely implemented measure, whereas sensors were the least used. Conclusion Overall, personalised and ongoing support, particularly through coaching and training, can improve the implementation of biosecurity practices. However, differences in access to and adoption of supporting measures across systems highlight the need for tailored strategies. Combining conventional approaches with modern technologies and actively involving relevant stakeholders can help strengthen biosecurity across farming contexts.
The rise of biological threats, such as new infectious diseases, including coronavirus disease (COVID-19), bioterrorism and unregulated biotechnology use, shows that it is critical for the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) region to have strong biosecurity laws, especially to safeguard public health. In this study, we examine the current biosecurity laws in three ASEAN countries: Malaysia, Brunei and Singapore. We discuss the main problems and opportunities related to legal changes and compare these laws with those in the United States (US). We distinguish biosafety, which concerns manageable risks associated with living modified organisms (LMOs), from biosecurity, which concerns predominantly uncontrollable threats. Biosecurity and biosafety hazards are, in general terms, conceptually related to public health, LMOs and biological weapons and are governed by separate sets of international laws. Rapid progress in biology, artificial intelligence and digital infrastructure has created complex risks to the health of people, animals and the environment. The experiences in several regions affected by COVID-19, severe acute respiratory syndrome and H1N1 influenza highlight the imperative for synchronised legislative and institutional responses. We use a qualitative methodology to analyse national legislation and international legal frameworks and standards, including the Biological Weapons Convention, the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention of Biological Diversity and the International Health Regulations (IHRs) from the World Health Organization. The results show that Singapore has a well-established, regularly updated biosecurity system. Malaysia is working to build its system through new laws and policies, and Brunei’s system is still in the developing stage. The US has a comprehensive legal framework that covers how to respond to pandemics, control disease and comply with international agreements. The results reveal ongoing concerns regarding the three ASEAN countries, specifically, the absence of standardised biosecurity protocols, robust legal systems and cooperation between sectors and countries. Hence, to tackle current and emerging biosecurity concerns, these countries need to address these issues and apply lessons learned from the US.
Background: One of the persistent challenges in biosecurity education is the lack of common vocabulary among key stakeholders − including scientists, educators, policymakers, diplomats, regulators, industry actors, and civil society − which can hinder effective communication, awareness-raising, and implementation. Objective: To answer this need, the IBSEN has developed a preliminary glossary as first step to support basic biosecurity education. Methods: Identifying and bringing together a shared set of terms that frequently appear across biosecurity, biosafety, health security, arms control, and the life sciences, and assembling commonly used terms drawn from international agreements, policy frameworks, scientific practice, and educational initiatives. Results: The first set of biosecurity glossary is produced and can be used for further development. Conclusion: The glossary responds to the need for a foundational linguistic baseline upon which more advanced learning and dialogue can be built.
Background Strengthening biosafety culture in public health laboratories requires not only policies and technical training, but also participatory approaches that make biosafety priorities visible to both frontline staff and leadership. Aim This paper aims to present a national awareness-building model for positioning biosafety as a public health priority by raising awareness, engaging leadership, and demonstrating how a national partnering competition can strengthen biosafety culture in Egyptian public health laboratories. Methods A qualitative descriptive analysis was conducted on biosafety proposal concepts generated through a national call launched by the Biorisk Management Unit (BRM) at the Central Public Health Laboratory (CPHL), Egypt, inviting public health laboratories from all 27 governorates to develop joint biosafety initiatives through twinning or tripartite partnerships. The submitted concepts were tailored to local operational realities and reviewed by a multisectoral jury of biosafety experts operating within a One Health framework. In this manuscript, the proposals are interpreted as indicators of biosafety awareness, perceived needs, and locally prioritized solutions rather than evidence of implemented interventions or formally evaluated outcomes. Results Out of the 27 Egyptian governorates, 24 participated, generating 10 biosafety-focused proposals covering 17 thematic areas. Digital innovation emerged as the most frequent theme, including smartphone applications, QR code-based tools, and artificial intelligence-assisted solutions. The highest-ranked concepts focused on hazardous waste management, access to biosafety documents and safety data, equipment identification, staff learning, and structured knowledge exchange. In November 2025, the winning proposals were announced during the annual CPHL conference in the presence of laboratory leadership and Ministry of Health officials. Follow-up on implementation was planned through the BRM team, with implementation progress to be monitored using predefined indicators. Conclusion This paper presents a national awareness-building model demonstrating how participatory, bottom-up approaches can support policy dialogue, inform future biosafety strengthening efforts, and promote locally driven, context-adapted solutions within resource-constrained public health laboratory systems.
Genetic biocontrol is a novel strategy that may one day be used to combat the spread of invasive species and infectious diseases. A comprehensive assessment of potential ecological and human health risks was recently completed for a proposed field study of Anopheles coluzzii mosquitoes genetically modified to carry a paternal male bias (PMB) construct. This genetic strain is an interim product on a development pathway towards a cost-effective genetic control strategy for malaria in sub-Saharan Africa. As part of this analysis, we investigated the potential for the PMB construct to be transferred from mosquitoes to humans via horizontal gene transfer (HGT) after limited field release. A systematic genetic analysis searched for evidence of historical HGT events between humans and mosquitoes in the Anopheles gambiae complex and assessed the potential for the PMB construct to integrate into the human genome. Of the 5,462 regions identified as similar between the human and mosquito genomes, 4,697 were explainable via conventional inheritance, 536 lacked characteristics indicative of HGT, and the final 229 could be explained via expected sequence variations. Hence, no evidence of historical HGT events between mosquitoes and humans was identified. Similarly, analyses of the construct sequence revealed none of the indicators that would suggest likely alternate pathways of integration or transcription, indicating no evidence for a pathway to harm humans via the HGT of the PMB construct. Bioinformatic risk assessments such as these will be important for the development and regulation of future genetic biocontrol strategies. (c) 2026 Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Globally, food-borne campylobacteriosis is a major cause of bacterial gastroenteritis, disproportionately affecting impoverished areas. Inadequate sanitation infrastructure in these settings leads to abundant house flies, potentially contaminating food and surfaces and increasing the spread of infections, such as campylobacteriosis. This paper addresses the underexplored direct transmission routes of campylobacteriosis: undercooked poultry consumption, mechanical vectors (such as house flies) and contaminated food products. We developed a mathematical model to investigate campylobacteriosis transmission dynamics through these pathways and to inform control measures. Our model includes human, vector (house fly) and food compartments, capturing indirect transmission via bacterial shedding, environmental contamination and mechanical vector transfer. We examined the stability of both disease-free and endemic equilibria through analytical and numerical simulations based on the basic reproduction number. Uncertainty and sensitivity analyses identified key parameters driving disease persistence. Mechanical vectors significantly sustain transmission, suggesting targeted control strategies. Public health interventions should reduce campylobacteriosis by minimising vector contact via awareness programmes and fumigation and addressing environmental contamination.
Carbon dots (CDs), a rapidly emerging class of carbon-based nanomaterials with exceptional photophysical properties and excellent biocompatibility, have demonstrated significant potential in the biomedical field, particularly in photodynamic therapy (PDT). Given that fungi exhibit mitochondrial-dependent characteristics analogous to those of animal and plant cells, this work aimed to develop mitochondrial-localising CD-based photosensitisers for antifungal PDT. In this work, Rhodamine B and sulfanilic acid were selected as precursors, and a one-pot hydrothermal synthesis method was employed to fabricate a new type of red-fluorescent carbon dots (designated RS-CDs). The RS-CDs demonstrated mitochondrial localisation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae (S. cerevisiae) and efficiently produced singlet oxygen under appropriate excitation light (kex = 525 nm), thereby inducing damage to S. cerevisiae mitochondria and achieving a photodynamic antifungal effect. Experimental results showed clear antifungal activity of RS-CDs, with IC50 values of 189.2 lg mL-1 against nonpathogenic S. cerevisiae and 387.9 lg mL-1 against pathogenic Candida albicans. Furthermore, RS-CDs also significantly inhibit bacteria without mitochondria, such as Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli, suggesting potential broad-spectrum photodynamic antimicrobial activity. This work proposes a strategy for synthesising an effective photosensitiser for antifungal PDT and provides preliminary insights into its mechanism of action. (c) 2026 The Authors. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Clinical microbiology laboratories in low-resource settings face increasing biological and digital risks, yet integrated evaluations of biosafety, biosecurity and cyberbiosecurity remain scarce in sub-Saharan Africa. This study assessed the operational profiles of laboratories in Lubumbashi (Democratic Republic of the Congo, or DRC) across these three domains.A cross-sectional assessment (February–June 2025) was conducted in 20 public and private laboratories using the Georgetown University Safety Laboratory Assessment Tool (S-LAT), aligned with the WHO Laboratory Biosafety Manual (4th ed.) and CDC/NIH BMBL (6th ed.) standards. Data were collected through structured interviews, document reviews and direct observations.Most laboratories operated in compliance with BSL-2 (95%) standards, yet none met BSL-3 requirements despite the regional tuberculosis burden. Infrastructure gaps included frequent power disruptions (95%) and limited access control (30%). Incident governance was weak: Only 45% had written SOPs, and 30% ensured post-exposure follow-up. Essential containment equipment was scarce (e.g., Class II biosafety cabinets or HEPA filtration: 30%; autoclaves: 30%). Biosafety training coverage remained low (35%). Colour-coded waste segregation was implemented in only 35% of facilities. Cyber-biosecurity emerged as the most critical vulnerability: 100% relied on paper registers, 85% had unrestricted data access, and formal data security policies were absent.Laboratories in Lubumbashi show systemic vulnerabilities affecting containment, personnel safety and data integrity. Strengthening infrastructure’s reliability, incident governance, workforce training and laboratory information security are essential for resilient diagnostic systems in low- and middle-income settings.
BSL-3 laboratories are crucial for global health security because they provide a basis for the research and diagnostics of new and known infectious agents. Yet few such facilities have been established, and those that do exist struggle to remain due to technical, regulatory and financial limitations, particularly in low- and middle-income areas. This review combines cross-sectoral evidence from international management and laboratory competence standards, engineering and design work, and recent mapping exercises of global BSL-3 infrastructures from 2000 to 2025. Using this methodology, we established a four-phase lifecycle model (pre-construction, construction, post-construction, and accreditation and sustainability) for assessing operational resilience, biosafety culture and determinants of regulatory compliance. Worldwide, more than 3,500 BSL-3 facilities exist in 149 countries, while BSL-4 laboratories are restricted to fewer than 80 [24],WHO, 2024). Since the COVID-19 pandemic of 2020, growth has accelerated, indicative of a greater national commitment to building capacity for diagnostic testing and epidemic preparedness. Nonetheless, there are major disparities; 82 percent of high-containment capacity is only in high-income areas. Some of the sustainability challenges are a lack of continuous funding (i.e. the ‘funding cliff’), regulatory harmonisation gaps and a shortage of trained biosafety personnel. However, innovations in engineering (N + 1 HVAC redundancy, dual HEPA filtration or integrated QMS frameworks) have been critical for enabling the ongoing performance and long-term safety of containment. Developing reliable biosafety governance and workforce sustainability in BSL-3 labs requires a systems engineering approach. A cooperative global investment approach is merited to increase high-containment capacity, for example developing standardised accreditation frameworks and continuous professional development to secure safety and scientific equality.
The risk of infectious diseases is considerably high during Hajj rituals due to overcrowding. The general application of a framework that describes Hajj can be limited as the characteristics of mass gatherings differ from one site to another. Therefore, there is a call for studies that focus on each of the Hajj rituals independently. This study proposes an agent-based model that describes the spread of contagions in the Mena Region, calibrated against reported COVID-19 outbreak characteristics during Hajj. An optimization was performed to test nine scenarios in which diseases’ prevalence, regional diversity, mobility, and capacity were prioritized in different combinations. The results show that prevalence becomes unrealistic in the case of no constraints, whereas eight out of the nine fitted scenarios fall within or near the empirical ranges of both prevalence (3–15%) and R0 (1.4–3.1), signifying that the framework captures important epidemiological dynamics. The most cost-effective control is generated when all four factors are considered equally so high capacity and mobility are allowed, with infections kept in realistic bounds. When nationality groups vary according to vaccination properties and age distributions, limiting participants from high-risk regions illustrated a significant impact on suppressing the infection. Finally, the study also investigated the relationship between disease incubation time and the time people spend in a foreign area. Once the stay time exceeds the incubation time, the infection level and the peak of the infection undergo a sharp increase.
