Wastewater treatment plants are important interfaces for the persistence and environmental dissemination of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, yet quantitative culture-based studies comparing treated effluent with paired upstream and downstream receiving waters across multiple sentinel organisms remain limited. This study quantified antibiotic-resistant Escherichia coli, Enterococcus, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa in treated municipal effluent and receiving river waters in northeast Tennessee. Grab samples were collected monthly from March through November 2025 at the following three locations: final chlorinated effluent, upstream water, and downstream water. Target organisms included cefotaxime-resistant E. coli, erythromycin- and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus, and imipenem- and ceftazidime-resistant P. aeruginosa, measured on selective media with paired no-antibiotic plates. Antibiotic-resistant colony counts were analyzed using negative binomial regression with adjustment for sampling month and offsets for plated volume and confirmation-adjusted paired no-antibiotic counts. Among 114 samples, cefotaxime-resistant E. coli counts were significantly higher upstream than downstream, whereas effluent did not differ significantly from downstream. Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus counts were significantly higher upstream and in effluent than downstream. Imipenem-resistant P. aeruginosa counts were highest in effluent, whereas P. aeruginosa ceftazidime-resistant counts remained low across sites. These findings indicate that antibiotic-resistant bacterial burdens were organism- and antibiotic-specific and did not show a uniform downstream enrichment pattern attributable to treated effluent alone.
Background/Objectives: Melioidosis is an environmentally acquired infection caused by Burkholderia pseudomallei (B. pseudomallei). Although historically framed as a tropical disease, evidence indicates that recognized risk can extend beyond classical endemic regions. This narrative review synthesized Digital Object Identifier (DOI)-verified evidence on environmental persistence, climate-sensitive risk, geographic emergence, and One Health preparedness. Methods: Structured narrative searches of PubMed/Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System Online (MEDLINE), Europe PubMed Central (Europe PMC), Crossref, and publisher records were conducted for literature available up to 19 June 2026. Forty-four DOI-verified sources were retained. Evidence categories were derived inductively by inferential function during thematic synthesis and used as a qualitative interpretive framework, not as a validated quantitative risk score. Results: B. pseudomallei persists in soil and water, survives nutrient limitation, and clusters in environmental microfoci, but the interpretive value of detection depends on viability, exposure context, and diagnostic endpoint. Rainfall, humidity, flooding, and cyclones are associated with incidence, severity, or mobilization in several settings, supporting climate-sensitive risk rather than uniform geographic spread. Case-based evidence is strongest when it separates importation, local acquisition, environmental establishment, source attribution, and animal sentinel signals. Human risk depends on exposure route, host susceptibility, diagnostic recognition, and access to prolonged antimicrobial management, whereas animal evidence is best interpreted as sentinel or common-exposure evidence unless reservoir or direct-transmission data are available. Conclusions: Melioidosis beyond the tropics requires graded evidence interpretation because environmental detection, modeled suitability, animal signals, and human cases support different levels of geographic and One Health inference; this approach links early signals to surveillance while reserving higher-confidence claims for convergent evidence.
Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF) is a severe tick-borne zoonotic disease associated with high case fatality rates in humans and represents a significant public health threat in endemic areas of Kosovo. However, data on viral circulation in ticks in non-endemic regions remain limited. CCHF is caused by Orthonairovirus haemorrhagiae, formerly known as the Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV). In the present study, 745 ticks were collected from domestic animals and the environment throughout the years 2017–2019 in seven locations of non-endemic regions in the eastern part of Kosovo, respectively Prishtina, Gjilan and Kamenica municipalities. The ticks after species identification were analyzed using RT-PCR for detection of viral RNA of CCHFV. Seven ticks (0.94%) tested positive, including six Rhipicephalus bursa ticks, three of them collected from grazing cattle and sheep in the village Hajvali (Prishtina municipality) and three others in the village Busavat (Kamenica municipality) from grazing cattle, while one positive sample was detected in a Hyalomma marginatum tick collected from a grazing dairy cow in Bresalc village (Gjilan municipality). The virus detected in Rh. bursa is considered to be consistent with the Aigia virus, formerly classified as CCHFV Clade VI/Europe 2 or the AP92-like lineage, which has generally been associated with a lower pathogenic potential and the absence of reported human cases in these areas. The first reported human CCHF case in a non-endemic area occurred in the Bresalc locality (Gjilan Municipality) in June 2018 in a dairy farmer. This occurrence coincided with the detection of Orthonairovirus haemorrhagiae RNA in one Hyalomma marginatum tick among 36 sampled ticks collected from the same farm, following clinical and laboratory confirmation of CCHF in infected patients. Consequently, this finding indicated the circulation of CCHFV in this area. These results demonstrated active circulation of CCHFV in tick populations in regions previously considered non-endemic and highlighted a potential public health risk associated with pathogenic strains. Genomic and tick surveillance, combined with targeted vector control measures and public awareness, are essential for reducing CCHFV transmission and preventing human infections.
Dengue virus (DENV) remains a major global public health challenge, driven by the expanding distribution of Aedes vectors, rapid urbanization, and increasing climate variability. This review aimed to synthesize current evidence on dengue transmission dynamics, immunopathogenesis, molecular epidemiology, diagnostic and therapeutic advances, vaccine development, and the influence of climatic factors on disease patterns. A comprehensive search of major electronic databases was conducted to identify relevant literature, followed by a qualitative synthesis of the evidence. The evidence highlights complex transmission cycles involving Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus, with transmission strongly influenced by temperature, humidity, rainfall, and extreme climate events. Advances in immunopathogenesis research have improved understanding of mechanisms associated with severe disease, including antibody-dependent enhancement and dysregulated inflammatory responses. Diagnostic innovations, such as reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), NS1 antigen detection, and point-of-care technologies, have enhanced case identification, while prevention strategies increasingly incorporate integrated vector management, digital surveillance systems, and emerging vaccines. Integrating epidemiological, molecular, and climatic information may strengthen early warning systems, improve outbreak prediction, and support more effective dengue prevention and control strategies.
Mpox is a zoonotic infectious disease caused by the species Orthopoxvirus monkeypox (MPV), which is becoming an increasing public health concern. While human-to-human transmission of the virus is well established, the role of domestic animals in MPV infection remains poorly understood. Investigating how the virus is transmitted among humans, dogs, and cats can improve our understanding of the disease’s pathogenesis and help develop strategies to limit its dissemination during future outbreaks. In this study samples were collected from four domestic animals (three dogs and one cat) in May 2023. These animals lived in a household where a human mpox case had been confirmed by PCR in March 2023, approximately 2 months before animal sampling. A plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT) using vaccinia virus was performed to detect anti-orthopoxvirus (OPV) neutralizing antibodies (nAbs). Our data demonstrated that anti-OPV nAbs were present in samples obtained from three dogs and one cat with neutralization titers ranging from 1:5 to 1:20. These results indicate that the domestic animals were exposed to OPVs after contact with an individual with confirmed mpox, suggesting possible human-to-animal transmission within a household. Nevertheless, due to the cross-reactive immune response among OPVs, and the endemic circulation of vaccinia virus in Brazil, it is not possible to determine the specific viral species based solely on PRNT results. Therefore, these serological findings should be interpreted as evidence of OPV’s exposure rather than confirmed MPV infection.
Background: The resurgence of Mpox (formerly known as monkeypox) since the 2022 global outbreak has exposed weaknesses in surveillance, diagnosis, and public risk communication systems. Despite increased clinical understanding, limitations in knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) among both healthcare workers (HCWs) and the general population continue to challenge prevention and control measures. Numerous systematic reviews have been published on KAP toward Mpox, yet their findings remain fragmented. This review aimed to consolidate the existing evidence from published systematic reviews to provide a unified understanding of global KAP levels related to Mpox. Methods: We followed the PRISMA guidelines for this systematic review of systematic reviews. The article search was conducted in PubMed, Embase, and the Cochrane Library for systematic reviews published between January 2010 and October 2025. Data was extracted on study design, population, and reported quantitative outcomes. Results: Five studies met the inclusion criteria: three focused on HCWs, while two focused on the general population. Among HCWs, knowledge ranged from 26.0% to 46.7%, and attitudes from 28.2% to 62.2%. In the general population, knowledge ranged from 33.0% to 46.6%, attitudes from 40.0% to 71.9%, and perceptions averaged around 40.0%. Across both groups, Mpox knowledge was limited, attitudes were moderately positive, and preventive behaviors remained consistently low, revealing a persistent gap between awareness and practice. Conclusions: This review highlights persistent gaps in knowledge, attitudes, and practices among HCWs and the general population. Although global attention increased substantially following the 2022 outbreak, important weaknesses remain in translating knowledge into consistent preventive behaviors. Addressing these gaps requires structured and context-specific interventions. Integrating Mpox-focused modules into mandatory Continuing Medical Education credits for HCWs could ensure sustained competency in diagnosis, infection prevention, and outbreak response beyond peak epidemic periods. For the general population, strategic risk communication campaigns should leverage trusted community leaders and social media influencers in high-risk regions to counter misinformation, reduce stigma, and promote evidence-based preventive behaviors. Embedding these targeted strategies within broader pandemic preparedness and global health security frameworks will be essential to strengthening early detection, public trust, and coordinated outbreak response in future Mpox or other emerging infectious disease events.
Background: Capillaria hepatica is a zoonotic nematode primarily infecting rodents. In humans, it causes hepatic capillariasis, a disease that resembles hepatitis. Rodents act as primary reservoirs and key amplifiers of transmission by ingesting the embryonated eggs in contaminated soil/food/water. The wet market is a potential hotspot for transmission through contaminated environments. Methods: We aimed to detect C. hepatica among wild rodents from three popular wet markets in Medan, Indonesia: Simpang Limun, Petisah, and Melati. Bait traps were placed near market stalls and nearby residences. Rodent species were identified based on morphology. Liver tissue was microscopically examined and further confirmed with PCR targeting the C. hepatica 18S rRNA gene. The spatial display was produced through a GIS approach. Results: From 150 rodents, the species captured were Rattus norvegicus (70.7%) and Rattus tanezumi (29.3%), with R. norvegicus as the most infected (95/106). Overall prevalence was 79.3%, with Petisah having the highest local prevalence (48/51). Positive rodents were found at market stalls and in nearby residential areas. Conclusions: We found a high prevalence of C. hepatica among wild rodents in the three wet markets in Medan, suggesting a potential threat of transmission to humans nearby.
Bats are recognized reservoirs for a vast array of viral diversity, including members of the Hepadnaviridae family. Within a One Health framework, genomic surveillance of these animals is fundamental to understanding viral diversity and the potential risks of zoonotic spillover in high-density human population areas. This study describes the detection of a bat hepadnavirus through agnostic viral metagenomics in samples from passive surveillance collected in urban and peri-urban areas in Brazil. Sequencing was performed using the Oxford Nanopore Technologies (MinION) platform, and the bioinformatics pipeline involved de novo assembly and taxonomic identification against viral databases. We identified several contigs with similarity to the Tent-making bat hepatitis B virus (TBHBV) in a single liver sample. The largest contig (3182 bp) represents the complete genome, exhibiting a nucleotide identity of 80.93% with the original reference isolate. Our findings document the circulation of this viral lineage in a new epidemiological setting (the Brazilian urban interface), underscoring the importance of continuous surveillance to monitor the evolution and geographic distribution of bat orthohepadnaviruses and their relevance to public health.
Brucellosis is a common zoonotic infection in India, caused by a facultative intracellular bacterium, Gram-negative coccobacillus, and frequently presents with nonspecific symptoms. This study aimed to assess serum cytokine levels (IL-6, IL-10, IFN-γ, and IL-2) by ELISA and to correlate them with inflammatory markers (ESR and CRP) in patients with suspected brucellosis presenting with rheumatoid arthritis-like manifestations and polyarthralgia. This study included 111 patients, comprising 72 brucellosis-positive arthritis patients and 39 brucellosis-negative arthritis patients as controls. In this study, we investigated the variation in levels of four cytokines (IL-2, IL-6, IL-10 and IFN-γ) among brucellosis-positive and brucellosis-negative arthritis patients and their relationship with clinical parameters. The mean serum levels of IL-2 and IL-10 were numerically higher in brucellosis-positive arthritis patients compared to controls; however, these differences were not statistically significant (p > 0.05). Similarly, no statistically significant differences were observed for IL-6 and IFN-γ between the groups. Inflammatory markers such as ESR and CRP were elevated in brucellosis-positive patients, although these differences did not reach statistical significance. These findings indicate variability in cytokine and inflammatory marker levels between groups. The observed associations with raw dairy consumption, contact with unvaccinated livestock, and direct animal exposure highlight the need for early diagnosis, effective livestock immunisation programs, and strengthened One Health-based public health interventions to reduce disease burden.
Khettara are traditional underground irrigation systems widely distributed in southern Morocco, many of which are currently abandoned. These semi-subterranean ecosystems may provide suitable microhabitats for phlebotomine sand flies, yet no entomological investigations have previously been conducted in the Khettara system of the Marrakech region. This study aimed to assess the abundance of sand fly and species composition within this unique environment and to evaluate its potential epidemiological significance. A total of 477 sand fly specimens (Diptera: Psychodidae) were collected and identified, representing six species; Phlebotomus (Phlebotomus) papatasi (28.72%) was the predominant species followed by Sergentomyia (Grassomyia) dreyfussi (23.06%), S. (Sergentomyia) fallax (18.87%), S. (S.) minuta (10.69%), P. (Larroussius) longicuspis (9.85%), and P. (Paraphlebotomus) sergenti (8.81%). Notably, S. (G.) dreyfussi was collected for the first time in the urban area of Marrakech. The findings demonstrate considerable sand fly diversity within the Khettara ecosystem compared to previously documented urban sand fly assemblages in Marrakech. Importantly, three of the six identified species are confirmed vectors of leishmaniasis in Morocco. These results suggest that the Khettara system may represent a potential refuge of some proven and potential vectors of leishmaniases in Morocco. Surveillance and integrated vector control strategies should therefore be considered in the Marrakech region, particularly in and around abandoned Khettara structures.
Cryptosporidium spp. is a widely distributed gastrointestinal pathogen in vertebrates, such as the European wild boar. Furthermore, with a fecal–oral pathway, they might spread through tainted food and water or by direct contact. Related to the presence of this parasite in wild boar populations, the handling of hunted carcasses may be a source of zoonotic transmission. This work aims to evaluate the presence of Cryptosporidium spp. in 10 Portuguese hunting areas in two different locations (Northern and Central Portugal) and to preliminarily assess the risk factors of zoonotic transmission to hunting stakeholders. Cryptosporidium spp. antigens were confirmed by an immunochromatography test in the wild boars’ fecal samples from four of the 10 hunting areas analyzed (one in the North and three in the Southeast of Central Portugal). A qualitative assessment of various potential factors contributing to the persistence of infection in this wild population, but also of zoonotic risk factors related to hygiene procedures and handling of carcasses after hunting actions, was also carried out. With these potentially risky practices, it is imperative to raise awareness and establish a surveillance network in the hunting areas in order to mitigate the potential zoonotic transmission of these pathogenic agents to hunting stakeholders.
Pasteurella species are facultatively anaerobic Gram-negative coccobacilli residing in the upper respiratory tract of mammals, fowl and domestic animals including cats and dogs. Localized infections with Pasteurella species are common but invasive infections are rare. There is a paucity of data available on risk factors, clinical presentations and outcomes with Pasteurella bloodstream infection. We conducted a retrospective review of patients with Pasteurella bacteremia presenting to our institution. There were 63 presentations (61 patients) with Pasteurella bacteremia. Immunosuppression, malignancy and alcohol misuse were common. Rates of admission to intensive care (n = 18, 29.5%) and death prior to hospital discharge (n = 7, 11.5%) were high.
Porcine cysticercosis, caused by the larval stage of the zoonotic parasite Taenia solium, poses a public health and economic burden in endemic regions. This study explored stakeholder perspectives on porcine cysticercosis control and risk factors in Busia County and documented proposed control measures with relevance to endemic regions. A qualitative design was used, involving eight key informant interviews (KIIs) and twelve focus group discussions (FGDs). Data were analyzed qualitatively by identifying emerging themes. The study found that smallholder semi-confined pig farming is the dominant system in the area, driven mainly by economic constraints, which elevates the risk of porcine cysticercosis. Poor hygiene, inadequate sanitation, and lack of safe water also contribute, alongside informal pig slaughter and weak meat inspection, compromising pork safety. Low public awareness limits preventive practices and hinders effective public health interventions. These findings highlight the need for integrated control measures, including community education on preventive behaviors and practices; strengthened veterinary services; improved sanitation; and enforced meat inspection. Coordinated One Health actions across public health, veterinary services, and communities are crucial to mitigate these interconnected health risks. The findings may guide interventions in comparable endemic settings and offer insights for managing other zoonotic diseases with similar transmission dynamics.
Pigs play a key role in the ecology of influenza A viruses (IAVs), particularly in avian influenza (AI)-endemic regions where co-circulation of viruses from different hosts increases reassortment risk. Between September 2023 and August 2024, we surveyed pigs from Lebanon and Egypt to study IAV ecology in AI-endemic countries. Nasal swabs and sera were collected and tested using real-time RT-PCR and hemagglutination inhibition assays against avian, swine, and human seasonal IAVs. Molecular analyses identified IAV-infections in both countries, including human H1 and avian H5 subtypes, which may reflect potential cross-species transmission from humans and birds. Serologic analyses revealed prior exposure to avian, swine, and human IAVs. Avian virus seropositivity reached 4.6% (H5N1) and 15.2% (H9N2) in Egypt and 8.6% (H5N1) and 4.3% (H9N2) in Lebanon. Antibodies against human H1N1 and H3N2 were prevalent in both countries. Serologic evidence exceeded molecular detection, indicating frequent past or transient infections not captured by PCR alone. Antibody responses were significantly associated with host-level factors such as housing type, age, shaping exposure risk. These findings demonstrate repeated multisource exposure of pigs to genetically distinct IAVs in AI–endemic countries, supporting the need for integrated virologic and serologic surveillance within a One Health framework.
Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) is a transboundary and zoonotic viral disease affecting poultry and wild birds in many countries worldwide. Globally, HPAI outbreaks have led to the death or culling of hundreds of millions of birds over the past two decades and have caused nearly 1000 confirmed human H5N1 infections, with a case fatality rate of approximately 50%. Asia and Europe remain among the most affected regions, with recurrent outbreaks linked to intensive poultry production, live bird markets, and migratory bird pathways. In Nepal, HPAI has been reported since 2009, with more than 320 outbreaks recorded and over 2.7 million birds lost, alongside one confirmed human fatality. Control measures rely largely on stamping out, movement restrictions, and surveillance; however, gaps in farm-level biosecurity, informal cross-border poultry trade, and limited vaccination use continue to sustain vulnerability. Strengthened multisectoral coordination under a One Health framework, integrating veterinary and public health surveillance, molecular monitoring, community awareness, and risk-based biosecurity enforcement, is essential to reduce the impact of HPAI and mitigate future zoonotic and pandemic risks.
In 2025, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) experienced its 16th Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) outbreak, centered in the Bulape Health Zone of Kasai Province, amid multiple concurrent epidemics and limited health infrastructure. Genomic sequencing revealed a novel zoonotic spillover genetically related to the 1976 Yambuku strain. A Root Cause Analysis (RCA) using the “5 Whys” framework, integrating epidemiological data, genomic analysis, and surveillance reports, identified key contributors to delayed detection and response, with comparative insights drawn from the 2018–2020 North Kivu outbreak. The Mweka outbreak resulted in 28 confirmed, probable, or suspected cases and 15 deaths, including four healthcare workers. Root causes included inadequate ecological surveillance, weak community alert systems, diagnostic delays due to reliance on centralized laboratories, health system overload from concurrent outbreaks, and structural underfunding of preparedness and coordination. Unlike North Kivu, where security issues drove response delays, systemic and ecological vulnerabilities predominated in Mweka. These findings highlight how ecological and structural weaknesses facilitate novel Ebola spillovers and their escalation, emphasizing the need for sustained investment in One Health surveillance, decentralized diagnostics, and resilient public health governance to strengthen outbreak response capacity.
Meat condemnation at slaughterhouses reflects the rate of animal diseases, economic losses, and potential public health risks. In northern Nigeria, however, longitudinal and model-based assessments of condemnation patterns using routine abattoir data remain limited. This study aimed to quantify species- and disease-specific meat condemnation rates, examine short-term temporal variation during the study period, and identify predictors of condemnation at the Sokoto State Main Abattoir. A retrospective panel analysis of aggregated abattoir data with repeated temporal observations was conducted using abattoir meat inspection records from January to June 2025. Condemnation rates per 1000 animals slaughtered were calculated by species, disease category, and month. Short-term temporal variation within the study period and associated factors were evaluated using negative binomial regression with an offset for slaughter volume. These rates reflect the number of condemned organs recorded relative to the number of animals slaughtered, as multiple organs may be condemned from a single animal during post-mortem inspection. Model adequacy was assessed through dispersion diagnostics, multicollinearity checks, residual analyses, sensitivity analyses, and predictive calibration using observed versus model-predicted rates. A total of 317,685 animals were slaughtered during the study period, with 1628 condemnation cases, corresponding to an overall condemnation rate of 5.12 per 1000 animals slaughtered (95% CI: 4.88–5.38). Condemnation rates varied markedly by species, with camels exhibiting the highest monthly rates (140.05 per 1000 animals slaughtered), followed by cattle (51.80 per 1000 animals slaughtered), sheep (40.62 per 1000 animals slaughtered), and goats (22.19 per 1000 animals slaughtered) during the study period. Disease-specific analyses identified contagious bovine pleuropneumonia, fascioliasis, hydatidosis, and tuberculosis-like lesions as major contributors to condemnation. Temporal patterns demonstrated non-linear monthly variation, with elevated rates in mid-study months. The final negative binomial model showed good calibration, with close agreement between observed and predicted rates across species and diseases. Meat condemnation at the Sokoto State abattoir demonstrates substantial heterogeneity by species, disease, and time. Priority conditions such as contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP), fascioliasis, hydatidosis, and tuberculosis-like lesions warrant targeted control efforts. These findings reinforce the value of routinely collected abattoir data as a practical and robust component of animal health surveillance in resource-limited settings.
The Third Plague Pandemic originated in 19th-century Yunnan, China, yet the confluence of factors that enabled the pandemic strain Yersinia pestis 1.ORI to emerge and spread globally remains unclear. Using a One Health framework, this study investigates how human-driven ecological and socioeconomic changes disrupted zoonotic barriers in Yunnan. We conduct an interdisciplinary historical analysis, triangulating evidence from Qing dynasty gazetteers, environmental reconstructions, and biological data on plague ecology, including host–vector dynamics, to model conditions for spillover and spread and to build a convergent, validated case. The analysis identifies a mid-19th-century convergence that created a high-risk interface: widespread deforestation from mining and agriculture, rapid population growth, increased synanthropic rat densities, and the turmoil of the Panthay Rebellion. Socioeconomic stressors—labour migration into mining valleys, currency devaluation undermining food security, and comorbidities such as malnutrition, heavy metal contamination, and opium use—may have further increased host susceptibility. This socio-ecological context catalysed spillover and establishment of the 1.ORI strain in commensal rat populations. The findings show the pandemic’s origin reflects spatiotemporal convergence rather than a single cause, while noting uncertainty in quantifying historical ecological and health parameters; the case offers a framework for assessing contemporary pandemic risks. It underscores how layered pressures operate across timescales.
The high genetic diversity and broad host range of betacoronavirus lead to frequent zoonotic outbreaks, posing a severe threat to public health. Therefore, the development of broad-spectrum antiviral agents is critical. Our study evaluated the broad-spectrum antiviral activity of 3CL protease (3CLpro) inhibitors AKEX0730 and AKEX0757 against seven representative betacoronavirus strains from Sarbecovirus and Merbecovirus. Their efficacy was confirmed via in vitro live virus inhibition assays, and the binding mechanism and stability with conserved viral targets were elucidated using molecular docking and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. Our experiments demonstrated that both AKEX0730 and AKEX0757 exhibit significant broad-spectrum inhibition against coronaviruses originating from diverse hosts. These findings highlight their potential as highly potent broad-spectrum antiviral agents, holding substantial promise for the prophylaxis and treatment of emerging zoonotic coronaviruses.
Variegated squirrel bornavirus 1 (VSBV-1) is a recently identified zoonotic virus associated with fatal encephalitis in humans. A literature search in electronic databases such as PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and Google Scholar was performed using the following search terms: “VSBV-1”, “orthobornavirus”, “squirrel”, “zoonotic encephalitis”, and “mammalian bornavirus”, to identify peer-reviewed literature relevant to the veterinary and zoonotic aspects of VSBV-1. This narrative review summarizes the current knowledge on VSBV-1 with emphasis on veterinary aspects, including taxonomy, epidemiology, clinical presentation, diagnostics, hypothetical transmission routes, surveillance strategies, and proposed biosecurity measures. However, evidence regarding virus shedding, natural reservoirs, distribution, and transmission pathways is presently absent. VSBV-1 may persist undetected in infected squirrels due to the absence of clinical signs and limited surveillance efforts. Large-scale epidemiological studies have not yet been performed. Given the limited understanding of viral epidemiology and the severe course of zoonotic infection, a precautionary approach is warranted. Structured surveillance, control of animal movements, and occupational protection are essential to limit both viral spread and the risk of zoonotic infection. Future research should focus on identifying natural reservoirs, virus distribution in captive squirrel populations, transmission pathways, and improving diagnostic tools.
