This study aimed to develop unique heat-resistant polymers with very high-intensity blue photoluminescence (PL), particularly by maximizing the PL efficiencies (ΦPL) of fluorophore-incorporated polyimides (PIs) while maintaining their PL color. A bifunctional amide-linked fluorophore (HTA-BAPA) was synthesized from a hydrogenated trimellitic anhydride (HTA) derivative and 9,10-bis(4-aminophenyl)anthracene (BAPA) to covalently incorporate into the main chains of PIs. The dependence of the ΦPL on the HTA-BAPA content was investigated using a wholly cycloaliphatic PI matrix, derived from 1,2,3,4-cyclobutanetetracarboxylic dianhydride (CBDA) with 4,4′-methylenebis(cyclohexylamine) (MBCHA), without charge-transfer (CT) interactions, which mask the desired PL. The ΦPL in the PI precursor film significantly decreased after thermal imidization while maintaining the PL spectral profile (spectral shape and position = PL color). This is likely related to low-level (two-molecular) fluorophore aggregation during thermal imidization, which is responsible for concentration quenching (CQ). Then, the effect of the chemical imidization process (Route-C) on ΦPL was investigated. Route-C provided PI films via a simple solution coating and drying process without thermal imidization. However, when CBDA/MBCHA was used as the PI matrix, gelation/precipitation occurred during chemical imidization, which inhibited subsequent solution casting. To solve this problem, an alternative cycloaliphatic tetracarboxylic dianhydride, derived from the HTA derivative and 4,4′-biphenol (44′BP), was used to combine with 2,2′-bis(trifluoromethyl)benzidine. This matrix PI exhibited Route-C compatibility, excellent solubility, and high heat resistance (Tg = 263 °C), while maintaining a CT-inhibiting function. The PI cast film incorporating HTA-BAPA (2 mol%) exhibited a highly intense blue PL with an exceedingly high ΦPL of 0.68 (68%) and a color coordinate, CIE (x = 0.151, y = 0.074), corresponding to deep-blue PL. The impact of casting solvent type on the ΦPL was also investigated. A clear correlation between the boiling points (Tb) of the casting solvents and ΦPL of the resulting PI cast films was observed, where ΦPL monotonically increased with decreasing Tb. These results probably suggest that faster evaporation (solidification) related to the lower Tb during the first soft-drying step at 60 °C kinetically overcame the two-molecular fluorophore aggregation responsible for CQ. Solution casting from tetrahydrofuran (with the lowest Tb) afforded a maximum ΦPL of 0.84 (84%). Thus, unique polymeric materials with excellent solubility, high Tg, relatively high thermal stability and acceptable film ductility along with highly intense pure-blue PL were obtained, broadening the scope of photoluminescent PI applications, such as heat-resistant fluorescent QR codes.
The replacement of synthetic dyes with natural food colorants has become a priority for the food industry, as emerging evidence from in vitro and animal studies on the potential neurotoxic and pro-inflammatory effects of certified dyes converges with consumer pressure for clean-label formulations. Yet despite this, the industrial uptake of natural pigments remains uneven, held back by stability limitations that differ considerably from one pigment class to the next and from one food matrix to another. This review covers the chemistry, industrial applications, and stabilization approaches of the main natural colorant groups: carotenoids, anthocyanins, betalains, chlorophylls, curcuminoids, phycocyanin, and genipin-derived pigments, with particular attention to the physicochemical reasons behind their instability and the practical tools available to address it. Among stabilization strategies, spray-drying microencapsulation with composite protein–polysaccharide wall materials is often the most scalable and cost-effective option, whereas freeze drying may be preferable for high-value pigments or applications in which maximum pigment retention is the priority. Whether the encapsulating matrix remains in a glassy or rubbery state stands out as a key factor governing oxidative degradation across all pigment categories, which makes water activity management a non-negotiable element of any serious formulation effort. Anthocyanins require more than physical encapsulation alone: copigmentation and structural approaches such as acylation and pyranoanthocyanin formation hold degradation routes that no shell material can prevent on its own. For hydrophobic pigments like carotenoids and curcuminoids, lipid-based delivery systems consistently deliver higher bioaccessibility than aqueous or dried formats. pH control, antioxidant incorporation, and modified atmosphere packaging add a useful but ultimately incomplete third line of defense. One development worth attention is the use of pH-responsive pigments in biopolymer packaging films, where color instability, long treated as a drawback, becomes a real-time indicator of food freshness. Bridging the remaining performance gap with synthetic dyes will call for stabilization platforms that tackle the molecular, physical, and environmental dimensions of degradation together, built around the particular chemistry of each pigment and the demands of each application.
This study examines the colorimetric characteristics and possible biological effects of the quinoline-derived dye M1 1,4-bis((E)-2-(quinolin-2-yl)vinyl)benzene. The pi-conjugated structure and high planarity of M1 give it important semiconductor and optical properties, such as the modulation of its fluorescence properties depending on the synthesis method. These optical properties make this dye a candidate for use as a sensor for biological targets. Predictions were made on molecular targets such as receptors and enzymes involved in neurological and inflammatory processes. Docking studies indicated moderate to strong binding affinities (−10.3 to −7.1 kcal mol−1), supported mainly by hydrophobic pi interactions and low RMSD conformations. The predicted biological activity, together with the luminescent properties documented above, position M1 as a versatile dye with potential uses in biomedical applications and as a luminescent detection sensor. These results lay the groundwork for future experimental confirmation combining photophysical analysis and biological testing.
Melanin is a biological pigment known for its broadband UV-Vis absorption and structural disorder, which collectively determine its chromatic response. In this study, melanin–silica hybrid materials were synthesized via sol–gel processing under different catalytic conditions (acid, base, sequential acid–base) and using distinct silica precursors (TEOS and sodium metasilicate) to investigate how the inorganic matrix modulates the optical properties of the synthetic melanin. Colorimetric analysis revealed significant variations in lightness among the hybrids, while the chromatic coordinates remained characteristic of eumelanin. The material obtained via the sequential acid–base route exhibited the lowest lightness and highest absorption, indicating more efficient pigment dispersion, whereas the system derived from silicate precursors showed the highest lightness and lowest absorption, suggesting increased light scattering and/or pigment aggregation. Materials prepared under purely acidic and basic conditions displayed intermediate optical behavior. Electron Microscopy revealed distinct morphologies associated with each synthesis pathway, ranging from dense lamellar structures to compact aggregates and hierarchical assemblies, directly influencing light scattering mechanisms. Thermal analysis confirmed effective stabilization of melanin within the silica networks, with significantly reduced mass loss compared to the pure pigment. Confocal microscopy revealed detectable fluorescence only in selected systems, indicating variations in pigment dispersion and aggregation state. Overall, the results demonstrate that the chromatic response of melanin–silica hybrids is governed not only by the intrinsic properties of the pigment, but also by the structural organization of the inorganic matrix. Sol–gel processing thus provides a versatile strategy for tuning the optical behavior of melanin-based materials through controlled interfacial interactions.
The development of bio-based inks represents a promising strategy to reduce the environmental impact of digital printing technologies. This study investigates the formulation and performance of water-based inks incorporating two renewable pigments: a fermentation-derived indigo pigment and a plant-extracted yellow pigment. Special attention was given to dispersion optimization of the poorly water-soluble indigo pigment. Extended mechanical dispersion (115 h in a ball mill) proved critical to achieve colloidal stability, enabling the preparation of inks that met standard rheological and physicochemical criteria for inkjet printing with piezoelectric printheads. Both inks were applied on a variety of substrates, including cotton, polyester, leather, and kraft paper, pre-treated, in the case of the textiles, with either a cationic biopolymer or a synthetic polyurethane-based binder. Colorimetric evaluation confirmed effective deposition and uniformity, with the indigo ink producing deep blue hues and superior overall fastness than the yellow ink, particularly in washing and rubbing tests. The yellow pigment ink showed good stability but once applied to the fabric, the resulting print exhibited poor fastness, particularly against light exposure, indicating limited durability of the coloration on the textile. Shelf-life analysis of the indigo ink revealed a decline in viscosity and surface tension over time, though the colour and particle size remained stable, particularly under room temperature conditions. These findings confirm the potential of fermentation-derived indigo as a robust bio-based alternative to synthetic dyes and its superior performance in relation to other nature extracted pigments, which, although facilitating ink preparation due to their higher water solubility, result in lower-fastness prints.
We report a π-extended N-phenylphenothiazine dye bearing thiophene substituents, designed to address the practical compromise between long-wavelength near-infrared (NIR) absorption and the isolability of a stable radical cation state. The target compound was synthesized via Suzuki–Miyaura cross-coupling and exhibited good solubility in common organic solvents. Cyclic voltammetry in dichloromethane showed a reversible one-electron oxidation at E0 = 0.19 V vs. Fc/Fc+. Chemical oxidation afforded the corresponding radical cation, which showed an intense NIR absorption maximum at 910 nm. DFT calculations support thiophene-induced narrowing of the HOMO–SOMO gap and predict a pronounced bathochromic shift of the main absorption band. The radical cation was isolated as a stable PF6− salt and readily processed into spin-coated films, which retained strong NIR absorption and remained stable for months under ambient conditions.
Hydroxygallium phthalocyanine type V (HOGaPc V) is an excellent photo generator and is applied in xerography. The material is only accessible as polycrystalline substances, and the crystal structure for an evaluation of the structure–property relationship cannot be determined from the few X-ray reflections available by powder X-ray pattern. A new method for crystal structure determination is introduced, utilizing molecular interactions. This proposed structure appears to be superior to the published one by the classical application of the Rietveld analysis. Hydrogen bonds are detected and explain the thermal stability, combined with high photosensitivity, and point towards favorable application in electrophotography. A triclinic two-molecule unit cell P-1 with a = 11.63 Å, b = 12.60 Å, c = 8.88 Å, α = 95.7°, β = 95.2°, γ = 69.1° was established close to the one verified by the Rietveld analysis. The structure obtained was successfully tested by a comparison of the observed contacts and the packing energy of known Pc single-crystal structures and by a similar X-ray residual R factor of the mostly overlapping reflections with other materials. The packing contacts of the crystal determined by the Rietveld analysis show too short contacts and too high packing energies. The molecular and crystal structure of HOGaPc V is represented and discussed.
By examining historical recipes from the medieval treatise The Montpellier Liber Diversarum Arcium, the creation of bottle green and verdigris pigments involved various types of tempera, such as parchment glue and gum arabic. Malachite was also prepared. These references and paints were analysed using infrared spectroscopy and visible spectroscopy techniques, such as micro-Infrared Spectroscopy (microFTIR) and Fibre Optic Reflectance Spectroscopy, (FORS) over the 350–1000 nm range. This research provided new insights into the pigments used in monastic manuscripts and Books of Hours, supported by valuable data from the Soleil synchrotron. Producing historically accurate reproductions and applying spectroscopy to analyse them promotes sustainable cultural heritage preservation by maintaining ancient artefacts, detecting early signs of degradation, and enabling the development of compatible restoration materials.
The textile industry contributes significantly to environmental pollution through massive water usage and toxic synthetic dye effluents. Bioremediation offers a sustainable solution by using microorganisms, such as bacteria, to transform complex contaminants into simpler substances. This study evaluated the bioremediation potential of fifteen halotolerant endophytic bacteria isolated from black beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) against various textile dyes. The strains included Bacillus cereus, Bacillus amyloliquefaciens, Priestia megaterium, and Staphylococcus warneri. Initial screenings across different TSA (Tryptic Soy Agar) medium concentrations (10%, 50%, 100%) revealed that bacterial growth and discoloration—assessed via halo formation—were most pronounced in 50% medium. While several dyes showed no reaction, Malachite Green and Congo Red were successfully decolorized. In liquid medium assays TSB (Tryptic Soy Broth) (50%) quantitative analysis via spectrophotometry showed that strains PV57, PV107, and PV112 achieved approximately 45% discoloration for Congo Red. Most notably, PV18 and PV114 achieved discoloration efficiencies of 91.69% and 88.72%, respectively, for Malachite Green after 72 h. These findings indicate that salt-tolerant endophytic bacteria are promising candidates for the decolorization of textile dyes. However, further studies are required to determine whether the observed discoloration results from biodegradation, biotransformation, or biosorption. This study underscores the potential of agricultural endophytes in managing industrial waste effectively.
This paper reports the controlled synthesis of ZrO2 nanocrystals via a peroxide-assisted hydrothermal (HT) route at 120 °C, with processing times ranging from 12 to 72 h, and investigates the correlation between structural evolution, defect chemistry, and functional properties. X-ray diffraction (XRD) combined with Rietveld refinement confirmed the formation of a monophasic monoclinic structure with high structural reliability. Microstructural analysis revealed progressive crystallite growth and lattice ordering with increasing reaction time, accompanied by subtle distortions in local coordination environments. Micro-Raman spectroscopy indicated improved medium-range structural organization at longer synthesis durations, while transmission electron microscopy showed quasi-spherical and nanorod-like aggregates formed through oriented attachment, with particle sizes of 6–9 nm. Optical investigations using diffuse reflectance spectroscopy revealed band gap energies of 3.45–3.65 eV, attributed to defect-induced intermediate electronic states associated primarily with oxygen vacancies. A comprehensive photoluminescence (PL) analysis suggests that the observed emission arises from defect-mediated recombination pathways involving localized states within the band gap, modulated by the interplay between structural order and residual defects. The role of hydrogen peroxide is discussed in terms of regulating oxygen vacancy concentration, promoting structural stabilization while preserving functional defect states. The results demonstrate that precise control of HT processing time enables tuning of structural disorder, defect density, optical response, and the enhanced photocatalytic performance of ZrO2 toward RhB dye degradation, highlighting its potential for optoelectronic applications.
In recent years, increasing consumer demand for healthier and more natural foods has driven the food industry to replace artificial additives. Among these, colorants play a crucial role, as they influence the sensory perception and acceptance of food products. However, the widespread use of synthetic colorants has raised growing concerns due to their potential association with adverse health effects. In addition, several regulatory agencies have restricted or banned the use of certain synthetic colorants, requiring their replacement with natural alternatives. In this context, anthocyanins have emerged as a promising substitute for artificial colorants, owing to their similar color properties. Despite their potential, their use as a food colorant still faces several challenges, particularly regarding stability, incorporation into food matrices, and regulatory constraints. Therefore, this review examines the challenges and current trends in natural colorants, highlighting the potential of anthocyanins as substitutes for synthetic red colorants in food products.
Natural food pigments such as curcumin and β-carotene are valued for their coloring properties and health-promoting bioactivities, including antioxidant and anticancer effects. However, both compounds are susceptible to light-induced degradation, which can compromise their stability and functional integrity. This study investigated changes in the photostability and bioactivity of curcumin and β-carotene under fluorescent light irradiation, focusing on their interactions with the porphyrin photosensitizers zinc protoporphyrin (ZnPP) and protoporphyrin IX (PPIX). Spectral and HPLC analyses revealed significant pigment degradation, with β-carotene exhibiting greater instability than curcumin. ZnPP and PPIX accelerated the bleaching of both pigments in a concentration-dependent manner, with ZnPP consistently showing stronger destabilizing effects. Functional assays further demonstrated that the antioxidant activity of curcumin was altered by light exposure. Co-irradiation with ZnPP or PPIX significantly reduced the scavenging activity of curcumin against DPPH, ABTS, and AAPH radicals. In HCT-116 colon cancer cells, irradiation alone slightly enhanced the cytotoxic activity of curcumin, whereas co-irradiation with ZnPP or PPIX significantly attenuated this effect. These findings indicate that porphyrin photosensitizers accelerate pigment degradation and impair functional properties under light exposure, highlighting the importance of pigment–photosensitizer interactions during food storage and processing.
Fungi in the Chlorociboria genus produce a blue pigment called xylindein—a pigment with high UV stability, photovoltaic capacity, and which is used as a historic wood colorant. The pigment has not yet been synthesized; however, recent studies have shown that optimizing sucrose and glucose levels, as well as nitrogen levels during Chlorociboria growth, affects the amount of pigment produced. Ideal for laboratory and commercial production, most users of xylindein are hobbyist woodworkers for whom this level of control is not feasible. This study sought to determine easily-accessible sugar sources capable of stimulating xylindein production specifically for “at home” cultivation. Four ‘common’ sugar sources were tested for their ability to stimulate pigment production of four Chlorociboria species: honey, maple syrup, coconut cream, and high fructose corn syrup. All fungi produced significantly more xylindein in honey-based media. Across the different types of honey, the three fungi produced the most xylindein on raw honey over the more “processed” honey, although both raw and processed honey induced pigmentation. The use of honey as a media sugar source for Chlorociboria spp. offers a reliable, cheap, and effective method to optimize sucrose for hobbyists interested in maximizing their xylindein output, and may offer a cheaper pigment stimulant for larger-scale, industrial production.
Water contamination by synthetic dyes such as malachite green (MG) remains a significant environmental and public health challenge due to their high toxicity, chemical stability, and resistance to biodegradation. In this study, a CaO-CuFe2O4 composite was synthesized through a sustainable route using eggshells and orange peel as agro-industrial waste precursors. Comprehensive structural, spectroscopic and microscopic analyses confirmed the coexistence of a predominant CaO-based phase with spinel CuFe2O4, together with nanometric features, satisfactory elemental dispersion and practical magnetic recoverability. Under the experimental conditions employed, the composite exhibited high adsorption performance towards MG, reaching an equilibrium capacity of 2288.4 mg g−1 and 99.98% decolorization within 60 min. The kinetics were better described by the pseudo-second-order model, while the equilibrium behavior was more satisfactorily fitted by the Langmuir isotherm than by the Freundlich model. Thermodynamic analysis indicated that the adsorption process was favorable over the temperature range studied and became more pronounced at higher temperature. The results suggest that the adsorption behavior arises from the combined influence of surface chemistry, calcium-derived basic sites, ferrite-associated metal centers and interfacial accessibility, rather than from surface area alone. In addition, the material could be readily separated from aqueous solution using an external magnetic field, highlighting its practical post-treatment recoverability. Overall, this work demonstrates a viable waste valorization strategy for the development of a magnetically recoverable CaO-CuFe2O4 adsorbent for cationic dye removal. Beyond the specific case of MG, the study underscores the potential of agro-waste-derived hybrid oxides as application-relevant materials for water remediation.
This study presents a PRISMA-guided bibliometric and statistical analysis of MOF-based adsorbents for organic dye removal, covering publications from 2014 to 2026. A total of 59 studies were analyzed to evaluate research trends, material classification, and adsorption performance under diverse experimental conditions. The results revealed clear differences in adsorption behavior depending on dye type, molecular properties, and operational conditions, highlighting the key role of electrostatic interactions and solution chemistry. From a materials perspective, pristine MOFs dominated the literature; however, a transition toward functionalized and composite materials was identified, driven by the need to improve adsorption efficiency, selectivity, and stability. MIL-, UiO-, and ZIF-type frameworks were the most frequently investigated due to their balance between structural stability and adsorption performance. The analysis also identified critical limitations, particularly the inconsistent reporting of key experimental parameters, which limits comparability and hinders the identification of reliable structure–property relationships. Overall, this study provides a benchmarking framework supporting the rational design of MOF-based adsorbents for wastewater treatment applications.
Water pollution from industrial dyes is a critical challenge due to the resistance of these types of compounds to degradation and potentially harmful effects on living organisms and human health. In this study, the electrochemical degradation of methylene blue (MB) was investigated using ink-based copper foam electrodes with reduced graphene oxide (rGO), antimony trioxide (Sb2O3), and rGO/Sb2O3 composites. The materials used to synthesize the electrodes were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), which showed the successful synthesis of GO, rGO, and the Sb2O3-rGO composite. Additionally, the synthesized electrodes were examined using SEM. The MB degradation was studied using kinetic behavior and removal efficiency at pH levels from 3 through 6, monitored using UV-Vis spectroscopy. The electrocatalytic degradation was studied using sodium sulfate as the electrolyte across a pH range of 3 to 8. All electrodes investigated were determined to follow first-order kinetics. The Sb2O3-rGO composite showed the highest rate constants of MB degradation at pH 7 and 8, with rate constants of 0.0160 and 0.0159 min−1, respectively. At the same time, the rGO ink-based electrode worked fastest at pH 3 and pH 4 with rate constants of 0.0178 and 0.0158 min−1, respectively. The Sb2O3 also works best at pH 3 and 4 with rate constants of 0.0151 and 0.0152 min−1. SEM analysis shows the composite electrode was more resilient to degradation than other materials.
Hair dyes are widely used across all socioeconomic groups and regions worldwide. However, some studies indicate that these products contain substances known to be toxic to a wide variety of organisms. Moreover, dyeing practices generate effluents that may carry the toxicity of hair dyes into the environment. Due to these facts, there is great concern about the impacts these products may have on the environment, as well as on the health of their users and professionals in the field of cosmetology. This scoping review analyzed 184 publications from major databases (PubMed, SciELO, Scopus, Google Scholar, and MEDLINE). Ultimately, 126 scientific studies published between 1981 and 2024 were included based on methodological rigor and their relevance to the One Health framework. According to the literature, the components of hair dyes can induce adverse responses in biological systems, ranging from reversible topical irritations to severe systemic effects. Among the studies evaluated, more than half reported significant toxicological or genotoxic associations related to oxidative dye components such as p-phenylenediamine and its derivatives. These compounds are frequently associated with various types of human cancers, including breast, prostate, bladder, skin, ocular cancers, and brain tumors. In addition to their effects on humans, hair dyes exhibit ecotoxicity, which may threaten the maintenance of ecosystems exposed to their residues. The reported environmental impacts result from effluent emissions after successive hair washes that release unreacted dye residues. Due to the low biodegradability of these compounds, conventional wastewater treatment methods are often ineffective, leading to environmental accumulation and changes in aquatic ecosystems, soil fertility, and trophic balance. Data on the toxicity of hair dye effluents remain scarce and sometimes contradictory, particularly regarding the effects of their transformation products and metabolites. Overall, the evidence underscores the need for continuous monitoring, updated risk assessments, and the adoption of advanced treatment technologies specific to beauty salon effluents. The information presented in this work may support further studies and guide public management agencies in developing policies for mitigating the impacts of hair dye pollutants within the One Health perspective.
The correct identification of historical artists’ earth pigments is mandatory for cultural, scholarly, and historical applications. This paper focuses on the definition of the distinctive mineralogical, geological, and geochemical properties and the discussion of the geological genesis and place of origin of the natural Fe-Mn-based earth pigment named terra d’ombra (umber). It one of the dark-brown earth pigment most widely used by Italian and European painters from the Renaissance to the nineteenth century. The terra d’ombra earth pigment is a primary chemical sediment mainly composed of Fe (oxy)hydroxide and Mn oxide, produced by the authigenic precipitation from oceanic or lacustrine waters rich in metal solutes of volcanic hydrothermal origin. The principal areas of provenance are the island of Cyprus and the Monte Amiata volcano (southern Tuscany, Italy). Its peculiar properties in painting derive from this specific mineralogical composition and genetic process, which also exclude its definition as a particular type of ochre and as a clay pigment. Further misinterpretations include confusion with pigments composed of organic materials and the erroneous attribution of the name and area of origin to the Italian region of Umbria.
Water polluted by dye colorants has been on the rise in the last decade. This is due to the over reliance on the textile industry, and it is holding a high economic value in most countries. This industry is the highest consumer of fresh water whilst also discharging several natural and synthetic pollutants to the environment. Several methods have been used for the removal of these pollutants and one of the most efficient technologies to be developed includes the photocatalysis method, via advanced oxidation processes. This review highlights the developments of green iron oxide nanoparticles as photocatalysts in the last decade. It was noted that tuning and controlling the phytochemical concentration and synthesis conditions, can assist with forming uniform and non-agglomerated materials, as this has limited the vast usage of these materials in major applications. Also, upon controlling the synthesis conditions, improved surface area and charge separation efficiency was noted. Their limitations and need for modification through forming composites are highlighted. Moreover, future perspectives are given on the use of green IONPs as photocatalysts.
The trend toward developing sustainable nanotechnology has driven researchers to explore environmentally friendly techniques for nanomaterial fabrication. This review examines the utilisation of Commelina benghalensis plant extracts as an effective biological tool for the green synthesis of various nanomaterials. The procedures involve reducing metal salt precursors with aqueous or polar solvent extracts rich in phytochemicals such as flavonoids and polyphenols, followed by a calcination step that yields crystalline products. The findings show that the properties of ZnO, TiO2, Ag, NiO, and their composites are directly influenced by synthesis factors, including solvent, plant component, and extract concentration. This directly influenced their specific sizes, morphologies, and phases. Furthermore, these C. benghalensis-mediated nanomaterials showed high efficiency in the photocatalytic degradation of textile dyes and pharmaceuticals, as well as potential antibacterial and antioxidant properties. The Commelina benghalensis plant is flexible and renewable for efficient nanomaterial synthesis; nevertheless, issues with standardisation and scalability must be overcome to fully realise its promise for commercial and industrial uses.
