Abstract The unique biodiversity of Costa Rica and development of tourist-centric infrastructure have not only spurred tourism in the country but also generated economic benefits for the handicraft sector. Handicrafts embody the symbolic values of culture, showcase artisans’ manual skills, and utilise a variety of raw materials, including wood. This study characterises the wood material used in the handicraft industry of Costa Rica by examining the species used, their characteristics, the products developed, and the marketing and distribution channels employed by the vendors. A qualitative, descriptive-complementary methodology was utilised, involving in situ data collection through semi-structured interviews, supplemented by insights acknowledged as an important tool for development by evaluators. The findings reveal that most workshops are small manufacturers, employing fewer than five people, and primarily use small-dimension sawlogs, lumber, and end-boards as raw materials. Nearly 29 different timber species are utilised, the most common being Cedrela odorata, Bombacopsis quinata and Dalbergia retusa . The predominant products manufactured are functional items like spoons, cups, toys and vases, followed by decorative and ludic (playful) products. These items often feature motifs that reflect the region’s rich biodiversity, religious themes, and cultural heritage, which are appealing to tourists. Some workshops distribute their handicrafts to local tourist shops, while others sell directly to these establishments or operate their own retail outlets. For this purpose, they employ four main marketing and distribution channels: dealers, websites, social media and direct sales.
Abstract The paper analyses wood samples taken from 253 artifacts unearthed at the main shipyard in Nanjing, where the “treasure ships” placed under the command of Admiral Zheng He were built. Zheng He sailed in the years 1405–1433, making several expeditions, each consisting of 200 to 300 ships along the Chinese coast to Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean. Excavations were carried out in one of the three remaining basins (out of 13 originally). In total, eight wood species were identified. We microscopically identified Cunninghamia lanceolata, Pinus subgen. Diploxylon, Tectona grandis, Erythrophloeum fordii, Castanopsis sp., Shorea sp., Cotylelobium sp., and Diospyros sp. Of these, Cunninghamia lanceolata was the most commonly used, followed by Pinus subgen. Diploxylon and Tectona grandis . These three species accounted for 96.44% of the total number of samples. Our results indicate that sailors had already comprehended the properties and mastered the use of selected wood species at the beginning of the Ming Dynasty 600 years ago.
Abstract Despite the multidecadal tradition of dendroarchaeological research in Hungary, few case studies have reported dendrochronological results from historic rural buildings. To address this gap, this study presents the dendrochronological analysis of historic oak timber from four vernacular constructions in western Hungary. Oak was the dominant species, with a minor contribution (10%) of beech. Cross-dated ring-width series of the oak samples derived from historic stairs removed during renovation of a building in Kőhányáspuszta produced a 102-year tree-ring chronology, which was synchronized to 1731–1832. Ring-width series from oak samples from the barn of a parsonage in Vigántpetend produced two cross-dated datasets: a 152-year series ( n = 5) and a 98-year series ( n = 3), synchronized to 1731–1882 and 1830–1927, respectively. The ring-width series of beech samples ( n = 2) provided a 61-year floating chronology but remained undated because of the lack of an appropriate local reference chronology. Cross-dated ring-width series from oak samples derived from the wooden structure of a water mill in Örvényes produced a 157-year tree-ring chronology, synchronized to 1694–1850. Ring-width series from two beams collected from the roof truss of the associated storage house produced a 59-year object chronology, synchronized to 1810–1868. The successfully dated mean ring-width chronologies for each construction showed the strongest cross-dating statistics when compared to a nearby local oak chronology, supporting local timber use in the Transdanubian Range up to the early 20th century.
Abstract The Amazonas encapsulate the most extensive biological reserve in the world. Most of its species have a positive impact on the Amazon inhabitants’ livelihoods, providing food, by-products, wood, and non-wood forest products in myriad forms, flavours, essences, and uses. Among these, palm dates, the Brazil nut, and asaí ( Euterpe precatoria ) provide products with commercial value for local dwellers as well as foreign markets. Asaí, or açaí, has been widely used in house building, traditional medicine preparations, and staple food. The asaí berry has also been recognized as a super-fruit because it fulfils all nutritional requirements and provides antioxidants and anthocyanins. The Pando region in the Bolivian Amazon consists of floodplains providing around 85% of the asaí in the territory. Traditionally, asaí was sold directly to Brazilian retailers, but this side-selling is no longer possible due to the creation of three Amazonian fruit processing centres that have helped to increase the demand for asaí. The method uses clean energy to heat water for processing, thus reducing the impact of side-selling, which lacks eco-friendly technologies. Adopting clean technologies and Good Agricultural Practices ( GAP ) help to fulfill the No 12 Sustainable Development Goal. On the other hand, the development of the asaí value chain has oriented pulp production to niche markets at the national level, even though there is a food security legal framework that is enforced by the creation of public food programs and food enterprises. One example of these, EMAPA , has a principal objective to produce, store, and commercialize local food products at fair prices and high levels of quality, but so far asai and other Amazonian fruits have not been incorporated into food programs for vulnerable populations.
Abstract This study presents a comprehensive archaeometric and technological investigation of seven wooden statues dating to the Old Kingdom (ca. 2686–2181 BCE ) discovered at Saqqara, Egypt. The research aims to characterize the materials, manufacturing techniques, and surface treatments employed by ancient Egyptian craftsmen to ensure both the structural durability and symbolic efficacy of statuary intended to house the ka , or vital essence, of the deceased. A multi-analytical approach integrating optical microscopy ( OM ), environmental scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, micro-Raman spectroscopy, and technical imaging ( VIS, IRR and VIL ) was employed to identify wood taxa, pigment composition, and preparatory materials. Microscopic analysis identified four native timbers — Ficus sycomorus, Vachellia nilotica, Faidherbia albida , and Tamarix sp. — selected for their mechanical strength, availability, and symbolic associations. Structural examination revealed the extensive use of pegged mortise-and-loose-tenon joints and protruding foot tenons fitted into base grooves, reflecting an advanced empirical understanding of load distribution, stress absorption, and long-term stability. The surface finishing system consisted of multi-layered gesso reinforced with linen, demonstrating early preventive measures against wood movement and deterioration. Spectroscopic analyses identified a pigment palette comprising calcium carbonate, carbon black, malachite, Egyptian blue, iron oxides and jarosite — materials chosen for their optical properties, chemical stability and symbolic resonance with rebirth and divinity. The integration of technological innovation, aesthetic refinement, and theological intent illustrates the high level of craftsmanship achieved during the Old Kingdom. Collectively, these findings illuminate the synergy between material science, artistic practice, and religious ideology in ancient Egyptian statuary production, reaffirming the artisans’ mastery in transforming organic matter into enduring expressions of eternal life.
Abstract The talking drum is gaining wide acceptance in the music industry. However, it sometimes performs below expectations when in service, thus necessitating different research studies. To optimise the sound properties of a talking drum, we explored the contribution of the design of the wooden hourglass shell that makes up the talking drum. We felled three 15-year-old Gmelina arborea trees and collected bolts from their base wood to make the hourglass shell designs comprising six geometric shapes (funnel, twofoil, inverted crescent, cone, half-ellipse, and conic rectangular) and three interior finishes (rough, smooth, and glazed) in order to make the drums. Tests were carried out at no extension (ne) and extension limit (el) on the tension cord, while sound frequency, amplitude, timbre harmonic, and sound damping time ( SDT ) measured had a mean of 107.70 Hz, 43.85 dB, 0.11, 646.66ms at ‘ne’, and 243.93 Hz, 46.55 dB, 0.12, 800.92 ms at ‘el’, respectively, indicating that sound pitch, volume, and damping time performed better at ‘el’. We found a significant interaction between the geometric shapes and interior finishes, thus implying that the design of the hourglass shell influenced the amplitude, timbre harmonic, and SDT only. At the end of the study, we found that the SDT of a talking drum compared favourably and can be greatly optimised by glazing the interior surface of a conical hourglass shell.
Abstract This article deals with early and high medieval forest clearing from a toponomastic perspective within the territories that are nowadays the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. Place names, or toponyms, are the linguistic expression of the cultural concept of perceived space, and they conserve past historical realities. Hence, names given to a specific place often bear testimony to how early societies viewed, and later on changed, landscape and can offer insights into cultural and ecological history. By focusing on names that refer to land clearing and comparing them using the method of quantitative linguistic cartography, statements of correlation between different name types can be made regarding trends in early settlement and the ecological history of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. Toponomastic data can furthermore offer insights beyond traditional historical and archaeological sources.
Abstract The Nuu-chah-nulth people on Vancouver Island in British Columbia ( BC ) gave Captain James Cook a wooden club when his ship, HMS Resolution , was at anchor off Nootka Sound in 1778. The club passed through many hands before it was returned to BC in 2012 and housed at the Museum of Anthropology at UBC . This event was of immense significance to the Nuu-chah-nulth people who live in BC . The club was thought to be made of yew, a wood prized for its material properties and spiritual significance. However, scientific confirmation of the wood species used to make the club has not been carried out. The aim of this study was to identify, in a non-invasive way, the species of wood used to make the club and, secondly, to explore ways of integrating information on the wood’s identity and microstructure with more general knowledge of the club’s cultural significance, and of presenting such information to the general public. A thin sliver of wood was removed from a crack in the top of the club and examined using light and scanning electron microscopy ( SEM ), energy-dispersive X-ray analysis ( EDX ), and X-ray micro- CT . The sliver of wood possessed a combination of anatomical features suggesting that it was yew; for example, single helical thickenings on tracheid walls, cupressoid cross-field pits, and a lack of resin canals and ray tracheids. SEM – EDX detected pigment particles within the wood composed of Fe, Si and Al. X-ray micro- CT data and other information on the material properties of the club were integrated with more general knowledge of the club’s cultural significance and used to create an interactive touchscreen system. This system has received a favorable reception by staff at the Museum of Anthropology at UBC , and we anticipate that it will help young Indigenous people understand and reconnect with their culture.
Abstract The Mongol invasions of Japan in 1274 and 1281 are well documented historical events. Numerous wooden artefacts have been recovered from the waters off Takashima Island, where the Mongol fleet is believed to have been destroyed by storm winds. Historical records and previous studies indicate that fleets were dispatched simultaneously from China and Korea to Hakata via Tsushima, Iki, and Takashima islands, but were ultimately wrecked near Takashima by a typhoon. Scientific investigations of the Takashima underwater site began in 1984, yielding a substantial number of artefacts. In this study, we analysed wooden remains to determine whether the provenance of the Mongol ships could be inferred from wood species identification. A total of 606 specimens were examined, resulting in the identification of 46 taxa. The analysis revealed that ship timbers were predominantly composed of five taxa: Cinnamomum camphora, Pinus subgen. Diploxylon (two-needle pine), Cunninghamia lanceolata (China fir), Ulmus spp. (elm), and Pinus subgen. Haploxylon . Notably, a large proportion of Cunninghamia lanceolata , which is widely distributed in China but absent from Japan and Korea, was identified, providing strong evidence that many of the ships were constructed in China. In addition, several taxa not native to Japan or Korea — Cotylelobium sp., Dalbergia spp., Erythrophleum fordii, Liquidambar sp., Pistacia sp., Pteroceltis tatarinowii, Tectona grandis, Terminalia catappa , and Ziziphus jujuba — were recovered from a limited area around Takashima Island. Although these taxa were found in relatively small quantities, their presence further supports the conclusion that a substantial proportion of ships was built in China.
Casks are frequently encountered in urban and maritime archaeological sites dating from the Late Middle Ages to the Early Modern period; however, their research potential remains underexplored. Initial investigations into casks began at the excavation level in maritime archaeological contexts, particularly through the study of shipwreck assemblages, while urban archaeological research adopted similar methods when cask assemblages were recovered at urban sites. Nevertheless, systematic studies focusing exclusively on casks are rare, leaving a fundamental question unanswered: What is the nature and duration of a cask’s lifespan? The lifespan of a cask includes three stages: production, use as a transport container, and repurposing. Several methods are employed to differentiate these stages chronologically: Dendrochronological analysis (i.e., tree-ring dating) of the timber and the identification of marks applied during the commissioning of the cask provide insight into the production phase. The duration of the second phase — its use as a transport container — can be estimated either by dating the context of the cask found (such as a shipwreck) or calculating the timespan between the production phase and its repurposing. The final phase, in which casks are repurposed — often as shafts for wells and cesspits — can be contextually dated based on artifacts found in the features. This study utilizes these chronological methods to achieve a comprehensive understanding of the lifespan of casks. Beyond reconstructing the lifespan of casks, this research assesses the reliability of cask-based dating for contextual analysis. A systematic comparison between dendrochronological dates and artifact-based relative dating focuses on terminus ante quem ( TAQ ) and terminus post quem ( TPQ ) indicators. While these methods are commonly presented together, a comparative analysis has been lacking. This study addresses this gap, critically assessing how cask-related dating evidence should be interpreted and applied within archaeological frameworks.
Reusing construction materials is as old as construction itself. The most prevalent historical examples of reuse, especially spolia , consist of buildings made of hard and durable materials, such as stone and bricks. We examined circular wood use, including reuse, remanufacturing and recycling, on large-scale mediaeval construction sites, specifically in Finland’s mediaeval stone churches. In the Nordic countries, especially Denmark and Sweden, the reused pieces from older churches were intentionally positioned in niches, doorways, and window sills. In this study, we reflect on two standing examples of the mediaeval reuse of sacral timber from Finland: St. Mary’s Church in Pohja and St. Henry’s Church in Pyhtää. Our study aimed to highlight the practical starting points and motivations for reclaiming timber and the possible intentional positioning of sacred wood in ecclesiastical buildings. The analysed Finnish cases could currently be considered examples of a local ‘circular material economy’, with opportunities for recycling and reuse. Our research shows that ritualistic or artistic expressions did not motivate the Finnish reuse cases. Instead, the reuse helped reduce the time- and labour-intensive work of the local mediaeval community, given the modest available energy surplus for large-scale construction projects.
The last still-standing examples of Finland’s mediaeval timber constructions are the roof structures of some 20 stone churches. Karjaa Church — built in 1470 — boasts one of Finland’s best-preserved examples of such structures; it is vital in the country’s wooden cultural heritage. We present our interpretation of the building process of the Karjaa Church nave’s roof structure. Given the lack of written records on church building processes from the Finnish Middle Ages, we have employed a building archaeological approach, also integrating observations from Finland’s other mediaeval roof structures. This is complemented by a secondary-sources review to mirror the more general knowledge on Finnish mediaeval society and estimations of the local population, animals, labour tasks and workdays to understand the financing and labour provided by the local community. The fieldwork (2020/2024) involved systematically documenting the nave’s roof trusses, focusing on the doweled joints and the rafter feet, as well as the deliberate and incidental marks of craftsmanship, e.g. numberings and drill marks. Our findings indicate the trusses were manufactured on the ground in stacks before being dismantled and reassembled at wall-plate level. Evidence suggests that the rafter feet remained intact during this process, whilst other elements were reassembled after transport. Observations of the drill marks and notches reveal construction-technique variations, likely attributable to individual craftsmen’s methods. By analysing structural details and contextualising them within their historical and societal framework, this research enhances understanding of Finland’s mediaeval roof construction, providing foundations for future studies on the material — labour — craftsmanship interplay in historical architecture.
In 2014, a fire at the Glasgow School of Art’s Mackintosh Building revealed the use of New Zealand kauri ( Agathis australis D. Don Lindley) masquerading as oak pillars. A description of this timber as ‘cheap ballast’ in a 2015 Guardian article prompted investigation into the awareness, export, and use of kauri in the United Kingdom (UK). Awareness of kauri in the UK developed during the 1800s, as botanical knowledge of New Zealand flora increased and through discussion of kauri forests, trees, and timber in a range of academic and general publications. The earliest kauri exports were spars for the Royal Navy and between 1850 and 1894, approximately 79 shipments of kauri were dispatched to the UK, with over half occurring in the 1880s and 1890s. At that time, an economic recession and oversupply in NZ pushed the timber companies to seek a share of the ‘home’ (UK) market. The promotion of kauri in the UK (and Europe) included the display of timber and finished products at international exhibitions. Kauri was sold throughout the UK and was used for a wide variety of purposes, including furniture, joinery, fixtures, and fittings. Sent as intentional cargo, it was more than ‘cheap ballast’, and its presence in the UK demonstrates the colonial timber trade and ties between New Zealand and Britain in the 1800s and early 1900s.
Ongoing dendrochronological studies on construction wood from the Brussels region (Belgium), a collaborative effort between the Brussels Capital Region (urban.brussels), the laboratories of the University of Liege, and the Royal Institute of Cultural Heritage, have resulted in a substantial corpus of 443 oak samples with waney edges or partially preserved sapwood. The examined wooden elements date back to the 13th to the 18th centuries, with 85% of them accurately dendrodated. This corpus enables the development of a novel regional framework for estimating the number of missing sapwood rings and consequently refines felling date estimates for timber constructions made of oak in the Brussels region. A key feature of this dataset is the diversity of timber sources, reflecting the complex supply networks of a large and expanding urban centre. The sapwood model presented herein was designed to encompass this diversity in timber provenance, offering a comprehensive tool for dendrochronologists, building historians, and archaeologists to derive and report reliable estimates of felling date ranges. Here, we present a newly developed sapwood model tailored for the Brussels region that estimates the expected number of sapwood rings to be between seven and 27 (95.7% confidence interval). This range was narrower than that of previously used estimates and published datasets, offering improved precision. Furthermore, the new sapwood model enables a standardised workflow for reporting felling date ranges for individual oak timbers.
In the south of France, the Orange Theatre (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) is the only ancient theatre in the Roman West to retain such a well-preserved stage building. Since 2017, it has been the subject of a restoration campaign accompanied by archaeological studies, and the presence of scaffolding has made it possible to reach previously inaccessible parts of the building. On-site, a protocol has been gradually established to enable various trades to work alongside archaeological studies. Although stone was the main building material, 511 wooden elements were identified in or between the stone blocks. After documented in situ , they were removed, either wholly or in part. Their dimensions, shapes, and species vary widely, suggesting diverse functions (structural, furnishing, etc.). Species analysis showed a predominance of wood from riparian and alluvial plains, montane and subalpine levels, and the meso-Mediterranean environment. Dendrochronological analyses have not yielded any dates, but radiocarbon dating has indicated phases of the monument’s development in the 13th, 15th, and 16th centuries, when medieval and modern buildings were erected within its walls, periods that are poorly documented in texts. The building’s ongoing use and adaptation since its construction has certainly contributed to its preservation to the present day. In future, this study will benefit from the contributions of the Historic Building Information Modelling process, applied to ancient buildings through an innovative and exploratory approach.
In this paper, first a concise overview of the typology and architectural solutions found in historic wooden vernacular structures of Poland is presented. Then, the pressing challenges associated with the preservation and conservation of historic Greek Catholic churches on the Poland–Ukraine border are discussed. Many of these churches, integral to the Ukrainian minority group residing in Poland prior to World War II , are now abandoned and dilapidated. By examining the methodologies employed to assess the condition and preservation status of these edifices, a viable conservation strategy, tailored to these unique structures, is proposed in this paper. The proposed strategy emphasizes the importance of authenticity in the context of historic wooden buildings, particularly considering the current circumstances in eastern Poland. An abandoned wooden Greek-Catholic church in Miękisz Stary was considered for this analysis. This church of Ukrainian origin, dating back to the 17th century, exemplifies the architectural heritage despite its current state of significant deterioration. The proposed conservation model is aimed at addressing both the structural integrity of the architectural body and the preservation of polychrome decorations that adorn the interiors of this church. Additionally, the restitution of iconostases of wooden Greek Catholic churches located in Poland is discussed. This highlights the broader implications of cultural heritage preservation and the need for a comprehensive approach that respects the historical significance of religious structures. By integrating conservation efforts and focusing on authenticity and the cultural context, the proposed conservation model advocates a sustainable future for these invaluable pieces of architectural history.
Among contemporary woodcrafts, guitar-making is particularly ubiquitous and diversified. This work aimed at providing an extensive landscape of woods used by guitar-makers and mapping this worldwide biodiversity according to functions, reputation, conservation status, floristic composition, and wood features. A specific database was built through a meta-analysis of academic and professional sources. Detailed information was obtained by original surveys with guitar-makers and analysis of specialised wood trade. Specimens of 90 species were collected. In total, nearly 450 species cited in guitar-making were surveyed. Analyses of the results allow the categorisation of which species are in “main”, “common”, “occasional” or “rare” uses. Some functions are more focused on the number of species (“commonly” used diversity ranks as: acoustic top-plates < necks < bridges and fingerboards < electric bodies << acoustic back and sides) and/or regions of origin, and some are widely diversified and ubiquitous. Species or regions can concern rather specialised functions, or multifunctional woods. The total and regional biodiversity is analysed in terms of floristic composition: all cited woods belong to 234 genera in 64 families, “common” ones to 43 genera in 23 families, but 6 families concentrate many citations of uses. This study also allows to examine the issue of threatened species (which is of high concern in guitar-making communities and literature) with greater details and points of comparison. Both the proportions, and the levels, of threats on employed woods vary greatly depending on the regions of origin, the reputation or frequency of use, and the trade value. A visual mapping of collected wood specimens was built to highlight the links between wood reputation, origin (geographic and botanic), quantitative trade value, and wood characteristics that are most esteemed. These semi-quantitative results are set into perspective with artisanal values and relation with wood expressed by artisan guitar-makers, and with literature on the craft culture of guitar-makers. Future publications will extend this including material properties.
Intentional burn marks can be found in a variety of contexts throughout England from historic homes to medieval churches. They vary in size, and in many cases they can be found in groups or clusters on a single piece of structural timber or wooden furnishing. These marks are unique to wood, and they show an interesting relationship between past communities and the wood that was in their spaces, as similar systematic burning does not appear to occur on metal, stone, or glass. Recent studies into graffiti and mark making have drawn attention to these intentional burn marks; however, few reasons have been given for their creation. This paper seeks to explore different potential reasons for the creation of these marks and to demonstrate that the meanings and reasons for their presence may vary depending on the context of the building.
In the late 1940s and early 1950s, the Finnish company Puutalo Oy (Timber Houses, Ltd.) emerged as one of the largest manufacturers of prefabricated timber houses in the world. With some 30 factories situated across Finland, the consortium produced more than 10 000 buildings annually and delivered orders to over 30 countries on every inhabited continent. This paper explores the political and economic process by which the consortium utilized wood from thousands of hectares of Finnish forests to create prefabricated buildings that were exported around the world. We argue that a key to the success of Puutalo was the company’s ability to capitalize on existing infrastructure, knowledge and networks of exchange, while developing technological innovations that were genuinely new. Factories were reconfigured for greater flexibility as new designs for flat-pack buildings significantly reduced transportation costs. At the same time, construction systems were methodically simplified and supplemented by carefully detailed drawings to illustrate the process of assembly, bridging gaps of language and skill across a wide cultural and geographic range. At first glance, the company’s emphasis on standardization might have resulted in limited offerings, but closer inspection shows the flexibility of Puutalo’s design and production. Together with Finland’s special geopolitical situation, this flexibility enabled the company to manufacture a surprising variety of building systems for various climatic conditions and cultural standards, becoming a global player. Just as important, the material constitution of these houses has proven robust, allowing generations of inhabitants to maintain and alter the buildings in accordance with changing needs. While the growth of the Puutalo company tells a story of globalization, it also provides insights into processes of industrialized construction and the underlying ideals and realities of standardized building as it was practiced during the mid twentieth century.
In this study, an automated method was developed for the semantic segmentation of computed tomography ( CT ) data of oak wood linking the fields of wood anatomy and image analysis. The method reliably and rapidly segments whole vessels regardless of the presence of tylosis, which frequently is a major problem in wood anatomical studies. Analysis of the segmented vessels can contribute to the expansion of wood anatomical climate proxy archives. A machine learning approach was used for the automatic segmentation of the vessels, and a neural network was identified that performs the segmentation task with the smallest possible error. To achieve this, different U-Net models — widely used deep learning architectures — were trained and evaluated with manually masked and augmented CT training data. As a peak performance of this dataset, an exactness of 0.79 measured at the mean intersection over union (IoU) could be achieved. The U-Net could generalize new CT data of oak wood and show good results in predicting CT -like image acquisitions, such as a digital scan of a thin section. By using the U-Net with the CT data, it is possible to quantify vessel diameter at extraordinarily small spatial increments and additionally observe the vessels in 3D. The trained U-Net is also integrated into a user interface into which single or multiple CT images can be automatically read, predicted, post-processed and saved. The code and model file will be permanently archived on Zenodo and GitHub (Füting 2025) and is open for further development.
