Background: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of an eight-week structured dance training program on static balance, dynamic balance, and coordination performance in taekwondo athletes.Methods: The study was conducted as a randomized controlled trial using a two-group pre-test–post-test parallel design. Thirty-four licensed male taekwondo athletes (18–24 years) who regularly participated in competitive taekwondo training were randomly assigned to either an experimental group (dance training plus taekwondo) or a control group (taekwondo training only). The intervention consisted of an eight-week structured dance training program performed twice weekly (45–60 min/session) in addition to regular taekwondo training. Static balance, dynamic balance, and coordination were assessed using the Flamingo Balance Test, Y-Balance Test, and Hexagon Test, respectively. Data were analyzed using a 2 × 2 mixed-design analysis of variance (ANOVA).Results: No significant time × group interaction was observed for static balance performance (p > .05). However, significant time × group interactions were found for dynamic balance in both the right (F(1, 32) = 63.34, p < .001, ηp2 = .66) and left (F(1, 32) = 24.68, p < .001, ηp2 = .44) lower extremities, indicating greater improvements in the experimental group. Similarly, coordination performance assessed by the Hexagon Test showed a significant time × group interaction (F(1, 32) = 34.43, p < .001, ηp2 = .52), favoring the experimental group. Conclusion: An eight-week dance-based training program significantly improves dynamic balance and coordination performance in taekwondo athletes, but does not provide additional benefits for static balance. Dance-based training may be considered an effective complementary training strategy for improving dynamic balance and coordination in trained taekwondo athletes. From a practical perspective, incorporating structured dance sessions into regular taekwondo training may support neuromotor performance components relevant to combat sport athletes.
This study aimed to investigate the eff ects of an eight-week static stretching program consisting of four exercises on countermovement jump (CMJ) biomechanics in 21 adolescent male basketball players aged 11–14 years. The stretching protocol was performed after the fi nal training session of the day, four times per week for eight weeks. Two exercises were performed in a standing position and two in a seated position. Each exercise was repeated 3 times and held for 30–40 seconds, depending on the athlete’s individual tolerance, with a 30-second rest interval between repetitions.CMJ performance was assessed using a Bertec force platform with a sampling frequency of 1 kHz. Following the eight-week intervention, signifi cant changes were observed in several braking-phase variables, including average braking force, average braking power, average braking velocity, braking impulse, peak braking velocity, and countermovement depth. Propulsive duration, propulsive impulse, vertical stiff ness, and time to stabilization also changed signifi cantly, while relative peak power decreased. No signifi cant changes were observed in jump height, absolute peak power, or maximum rate of force development.These fi ndings suggest that the intervention was associated with changes in countermovement strategy and selected braking- and propulsive-phase variables, while maximal jump performance remained largely unchanged. The reduction in time to stabilization may indicate a change in post-landing stabilization; however, landing technique and neuromuscular control were not measured directly.
In elite football, player age and playing position infl uence performance. This study examined the relationship between age and playing position on expected goals per 90 minutes (xG/90) among 1411 professional soccer players (M = 26.05 years, SD = 5.22, range = 17-40 years) in Europe’s top fi ve leagues. A linear mixed model analyzed the relationship between age (both linear and quadratic terms), playing position (midfi elder, forward, defender), and xG/90. A signifi cant diff erence in xG/90 was found between forwards and defenders (β = 0.206, 95% CI = [0.193, 0.219]; p < .001). A small, statistically signifi cant positive association was also observed between age and xG/90 (β = 0.002; p = .007). No evidence indicated a nonlinear decrease in xG/90. Age-related patterns were consistent across all playing positions. After controlling for xG/90, neither age nor position predicted actual goals per 90 minutes. Overall, this cross-sectional study indicates that tactical experience and positional deployment may be the primary drivers of age-related diff erences in scoring ability.
Nordic walking (NW), which involves walking with specially designed poles, has attracted attention as a means of enhancing physical activity across diverse populations. While NW is known to increase energy expenditure and upper limb muscle activity compared to conventional walking (W), its biomechanical characteristics—particularly those involving joint kinematics and lower limb muscle activity—have not been fully clarifi ed. The purpose of this study was to compare gait parameters, joint kinematics, and muscle activity between NW and W, and to elucidate their kinematic characteristics.Nineteen healthy male participants (mean age: 26.3 ± 2.4 years) performed 10-m walking trials at a self-selected comfortable speed under both W and NW conditions. A 1-hour NW training session was conducted prior to testing. Gait parameters were measured using a pressure-sensitive walkway, joint kinematics were obtained using an IMU-based three-dimensional motion analysis system, and muscle activity was assessed using surface electromyography.Compared with W, NW signifi cantly increased stride length, step length, and walking speed. In terms of joint kinematics, NW resulted in increased hip extension, knee fl exion during the stance phase, and ankle plantarfl exion, along with greater trunk and cervical rotation. Muscle activity in the posterior deltoid, erector spinae, rectus abdominis, gluteus maximus, rectus femoris, and tibialis anterior was signifi cantly higher during NW, whereas no signifi cant diff erence was observed in gastrocnemius activity.A novel aspect of this study is the integrated analysis of trunk motion, lower limb joint kinematics, gait parameters, and muscle activity. These fi ndings suggest that NW induces changes in joint kinematics through pole use, thereby infl uencing gait parameters and muscle activity. Despite limitations related to the homogeneous participant group, lack of speed control, and short experimental duration, NW may be an eff ective strategy for enhancing lower limb muscle activity and joint mobility, with potential applications in rehabilitation settings.
This study compares force profiles during multi-joint isokinetic leg extensions with the knee-hip extension phase of the countermovement jump (CMJ) in 12 long jump athletes. Isokinetic leg press movements were performed at two different velocities (0.1 m/s and 0.7 m/s), and CMJs were measured on dual force plates. Force profiles were analyzed using Statistical Parametric Mapping to assess the temporal dynamics of force generation. Additionally, bilateral force differences between the legs for each condition were examined. The results indicate that isokinetic conditions (0.1 m/s and 0.7 m/s) differ significantly from the vertical jump in terms of force profiles. Furthermore, significant differences were observed between the force profiles at the two isokinetic speeds. In contrast, bilateral force differences showed high variability and no significant differences, suggesting that side-to-side force production is highly variable. These findings highlight that movement velocity during isokinetic exercises influences force-generation patterns differently than it does in dynamic, explosive movements like the CMJ. The high variability in bilateral differences suggests the complexity of force production in athletes, warranting further research. This study provides novel insights into the temporal structure of force production and the importance of movement velocity in the transferability of strength training to dynamic, sport-specific movements.
This study examines how the absence and subsequent return of spectators affected home advantage in Germany’s first soccer league (Bundesliga) during and following the COVID-19 pandemic. Using the match-level data from five seasons (2017/18- 2021/22; N = 1,530), the analysis exploits pandemic-related spectator bans and capacity restrictions as a natural experiment to isolate crowd effects from other determinants of home advantage. Matches are classified into seven distinct phases covering the pre-pandemic period, two spectator-free periods (“ghost games”), and multiple stages of gradual spectator return with varying attendance levels. The results confirm that home advantage in the Bundesliga disappeared during the first ghost game period of the 2019/20 season. During the second, longer spectator-free period in 2020/21, home advantage initially declined but gradually recovered, suggesting players’ adaptation to empty sta-diums. Following the return of spectators in the 2021/22 season, evidence for an above-average home advantage is limited. A statistically significant increase in home win probability is observed only in the final phase with higher attendance levels, and this effect diminished over time despite rising spectator numbers. Overall, the impact of spectator return is weaker and less persistent than the effect of sudden spectator absence. These findings suggest that the negative shock of empty stadiums had a stronger effect on competitive outcomes than the positive shock associated with the gradual return of fans. The results are consistent with adaptation processes and reference-dependent behavior, implying that home advantage responds asymmetrically to losses and gains in crowd support. The study contributes to the literature by providing the first comprehensive evidence on the post-pandemic return of spectators in the Bundesliga and by high-lighting the dynamic and temporary nature of crowd effects on match outcomes.
Introduction: Monitoring training load (TL) is key to optimizing health, performance, and injury prevention in soccer, yet evidence across full-season microcycle types in women’s soccer is limited. Purpose and objectives of the study: This study analyzed the weekly TL distribution in a semi-professional women’s soccer team throughout a full competitive season, and examined diff erences in total weekly workload (training sessions and match demands) between diff erent types of microcycles. Additionally, the percentage contribution of training and match loads to the total weekly workload in each microcycle type was calculated. Applied methodology: A total of 170 training sessions and 35 offi cial matches were analyzed during the 2024/25 season from 20 semi-professional soccer players who competed in the Spanish Second Women’s Division. Training sessions were categorized based on proximity to the match into four categories. In addition, microcycles were classifi ed into three types: Non-Congested (i.e., included only one offi cial match during the week; NCON); Congested (i.e., included two offi cial matches in the same week; CON), and Non-Match weeks (i.e., corresponded to weeks without offi cial competition; NMA). External load (EL) variables were collected during training sessions and offi cial matches using 10 Hz GPS devices. Achieved major results: Linear Mixed Models revealed that the NCON microcycle emerged as the most demanding week, with the highest EL observed on MD-4 and MD-3. Specifi cally, players covered signifi cantly greater total distance and sprint distance during NCON weeks than during CON weeks (p < .01) and NMA weeks (p < .001). Leads: These fi ndings may guide coaching staff in adjusting weekly workload according to microcycle type, balancing training stimulus, and avoiding large week-to-week fl uctuations in training workload across diff erent competitive schedules. Originality/Value: This study clarifi es how EL is distributed throughout the microcycle and highlights the diff erences between training and match demands across diff erent microcycle structures in women’s soccer.
Purpose: Sampling frequency is a methodological consideration that can infl uence force-time data outcomes and calculations. The purpose of this investigation was to examine diff erences in countermovement jump performance from data obtained at three diff erent sampling frequencies. Methods: 85 recreationally trained individuals performed 3 jump trials on a dual-force plate, sampled at 2400 Hz. Each trial was then resampled to 1200 and 600 Hz. Results: Repeated-measures ANOVA revealed no statistically signifi cant diff erences in sampling frequencies. Pearson’s product moment correlations revealed significant moderate to very large (r = .47 – .75) between 600 and 2400 Hz and large to very large relationships between 600 and 1200 Hz (r = .5 – .76). Signifi cant large to near perfect relationships were seen between 1200 and 2400 Hz (r = .87 – .99). Conclusions: Though no variables demonstrated statistically signifi cant diff erences, the stronger relationships and higher levels of agreement between 1200 and 2400 Hz, suggest that a minimum of 1000 Hz be used when collecting force-time data during the countermovement jump.
This exploratory qualitative study examined elite modern pentathletes’ experiences of psychological pressure during the laser run, a decisive endurance-precision event combining high-intensity running with laser shooting under cumulative fatigue. Six elite modern pentathletes (fi ve male, one female) with extensive age-group and/or senior international competition experience participated in semi-structured interviews exploring their perceptions of pressure sources, temporal experiences, and regulation strategies during the laser run. Data were analyzed using thematic analysis, generating four themes: performance pressure comes from self, pressure build-up, physical changes, and performance pressure strategies during races. Athletes described pressure as predominantly self-generated, arising from internal expectations and interpretations of performance signifi cance rather than external demands. Pressure was experienced as a cumulative temporal process, developing over the days before the competition, intensifying on race morning, and peaking during critical moments of the laser run. Notably, pressure manifested as an embodied experience, expressed through altered running pace, disrupted shooting rhythm, and heightened bodily sensations during performance. In response, athletes reported using fl exible psychological strategies, including attentional control, self-talk, and arousal regulation, to manage pressure as it emerged during competition.These fi ndings extend existing performance-focused research in modern pentathlon by foregrounding athletes’ lived experiences and highlighting the dynamic interplay between psychological demands, physical responses, and self-regulation during endurance-precision tasks. The study provides applied insight relevant to coaches and practitioners supporting athletes performing under conditions of fatigue and competitive consequence, emphasizing the value of athlete-centered approaches that address internal evaluative processes, recognize pressure as temporally dynamic, and integrate cognitive and physiological regulation strategies.
Sleep is widely recognized as a key factor for recovery and athletic performance, yet its relationship with training demands in triathletes, who sustain high training volumes across three disciplines, remains unclear. Thus, this study aimed to examine whether associations exist between sleep duration, sleep quality, and training volume in amateur triathletes. A cross-sectional design was applied, including 151 athletes (men: N = 108, 38.6 ± 8.1 years, 7.8 ± 1.8 sessions/week; women: N = 43, 39.3 ± 7.6 years, 6.5 ± 1.6 sessions/week). Participants completed two questionnaires: one on training volume during the past month, including the longest swimming, cycling, and running sessions, and another assessing sleep duration on the night before the longest training session and sleep quality via the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI). Results showed that men reported higher weekly training volume (741.3 ± 987.9 km) compared to women (595.2 ± 344.2 km). Male triathletes also exhibited poorer sleep quality (PSQI score = 6.31 ± 2.4) than females (5.21 ± 2.0), although both groups indicated overall poor sleep quality. No signifi cant correlations were observed between PSQI scores and training volumes across disciplines or total training volume in either sex. Also, sleep duration before the longest training session showed weak, non-signifi cant correlations with session volume. In conclusion, despite high training loads and poor sleep quality, no inverse relationship was identifi ed between training volume and sleep variables in amateur triathletes. Limitations include the cross-sectional design and reliance on self-reported measures. In practical terms, the fi ndings highlight that sleep quality issues in triathletes may not be directly attributable to training volume, suggesting other contributing factors. This study provides original evidence addressing a gap in the literature by clarifying the lack of association between sleep and training demands in endurance athletes.
This investigation examined how performing multiple-set resistance training (RT) acutely influences maximal repetitions (MNR), muscle thickness (MT), echo intensity (EI), peak force (PF), and perceived exertion (RPE) in recreationally trained subjects. Twenty-one recreationally resistance-trained subjects (16 males and five females) performed a unilateral biceps curl with eight sets of 10RM, and 2-minute rest. During each set, MNR was recorded, and RPE set was assessed. PF at 90° elbow flexion and ultrasound measurements of the elbow flexors (MT and EI) were obtained before and immediately after each set of the RT session. Session RPE (sRPE) was reported 15 minutes after completion of the RT session. One-way ANOVAs were used to examine differences across sets for all dependent variables. Findings showed a progressive rise in RPE set , MT, and EI across sets, while both MNR and PF declined ( p < .05). In summary, performing multiple RT sets reduced MNR and PF but elevated RPE set , EI, and MT, with MT stabilizing after the fifth set. Coaches should prioritize not only the chronic effects of RT but also the effective prescription and control of each RT session by implementing multiple sets per exercise, monitoring physical performance and perceived exertion to regulate neuromuscular fatigue, emphasizing high-intensity loading, and ensuring adequate recovery to maximize muscle responses after each RT session.
Information on coaching practices related to specialized training programs that affect speed and strength qualities in 14-15-year-old basketball players is scarce. The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of a specialized, periodized training program on the development of speed-strength qualities in 14-15-year-old boys playing basketball. Nineteen basketball players aged 14.5± 0.5 years who participated in a regular, well-organized training program were studied. A specialized methodology was applied for 5 months, from October 2024 to March 2025. Training sessions were held three times a week, with a wave distribution of intensity: Monday – high-intensity pure strength; Wednesday – explosive focus with variations and sprints; and Friday – emphasis on contrasting methods, including plyometrics and medicine ball throws. To determine the effect, a test battery of 10 tests was applied, including anthropometric measurements (height, weight, horizontal and vertical stretch) and physical fitness indicators (10 m and 20 m running, 5-0-5 test, long jump, push-ups with hands on hips, and isometric pull from mid-hip). The trainings were held three times a week, with a wave distribution of intensity: Monday – high-intensity pure strength; Wednesday – explosive focus with different variations and sprints; and Friday – emphasis on contrasting methods, including plyometrics and medicine ball throws. To determine the effect, a test battery of 10 tests was applied, including anthropometric measurements (height, weight, horizontal and vertical stretch) and physical fitness indicators (10 m and 20 m running, 5-0-5 test, long jump, push-ups with hands on hips, and isometric pull from mid-hip). After implementing the program, the basketball players showed statistically significant improvements in agility (5-0-5 test), upper-body strength, and lower-body strength (hands-on-hips jump and isometric pull from mid-hip). Positive developments were also observed in speed and explosive lower limb strength across other indicators, such as the 10 m and 20 m sprints and the long jump, although these improvements were not statistically significant. The results confirm the positive impact of a specialized, periodized strength-training program, which has been proven to enhance the development of speed-strength qualities in 14-15-year-old basketball players. This contributes to higher sports performance and injury prevention.
While sprinting capabilities are crucial for success in futsal, there is a lack of research on how they relate to countermovement vertical jump (CMJ) force-time metrics during both the eccentric and concentric phases of the movement. Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between short-distance sprint speed and acceleration capabilities over 5m and 10m sprint distances and CMJ performance within a group of professional athletes. Twenty-two male futsal players competing in the top-tier national league volunteered to participate in this study. Following completion of the warm-up protocol, athletes stepped onto a uni-axial force plate and performed two non-consecutive CMJs with no arm swing, followed by two 10m sprints. The body mass-dependent force-time metrics were analyzed in both absolute and relative terms, while sprint analysis included 5m and 10m sprint speed and average acceleration over 0-5m and 5-10m sprint distances. Pearson product-moment correlation coeffi cients (r) were used to examine the strength of the relationship between performance parameters of interest (p<.05). The results revealed that 10m sprint speed was positively associated with CMJ concentric peak velocity (r=.455; p=.032) and jump height (r=.457; p=.033). Besides providing sports practitioners working with this specific group of athletes with referent values about sprint and jump performance characteristics, the findings of this study suggest that athletes capable of generating greater CMJ concentric peak velocity and jump height tend to attain greater 10m sprint velocities.
Talent identification (TID) within sport provides extensive development opportunities to enhance the potential for senior success. However, little is known about the effectiveness of TID in table tennis. Therefore, the objective of this systematic review is to examine current research and practice in TID in table tennis, identify commonalities, disparities, and gaps in the literature, and provide directions for future research on TID in table tennis. A search of the electronic databases (EBSCOhost, Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, and SPORTDiscus) was conducted from September 2023 to March 2025. The search terms utilized represented table tennis, talent, performance, giftedness, and athlete selection. In accordance with the PRISMA guidelines, 31 articles were thoroughly reviewed. The results established three common themes: morphological qualities, performance profiles, and player characteristics. A key finding established maturation bias as a limitation in talent identification within table tennis, highlighting the importance of maturational assessments in future initiatives. Furthermore, given that most studies used a cross-sectional design, future research should consider longitudinal designs to provide a more accurate assessment of talent and development.
Sports climbing, as both recreation and competition, has reached a level of popularity that demands physical and psychological strength, as well as a high level of commitment. This study expands upon widely accepted models of sports identity by testing the prediction of athletic identity from sports commitment and enjoyment, as well as from social constraints for climbers, a relationship well known in sports but rarely tested in climbing. A total of 131 climbers from 31 countries took part in a validated online survey. Using multiple regression and path analysis, the model explained 55% of the variance in athletic identity. Sports commitment was the strongest predictor (r = .72, p < .05; β = .636), while sports enjoyment showed no significant direct effect. Furthermore, enjoyment indirectly influenced athletic identity through its impact on commitment and social constraints. The model explained 26% of the variance in sports commitment. Climbers who competed reported significantly higher levels of athletic identity, sports commitment, and social constraints than climbers who did not compete, while they reported similar levels of enjoyment. The implications of this study suggest that, inclimbing, identity is more strongly linked to commitment than to enjoyment, which could be important for developing athletes. Although this study was naturally limited by its cross-sectional design and reliance on self-reported data, it offers some possibilities and insights into how social and psychological factors influence athletic identity in less well-tried sports. There is practical value in the information provided for coaching and outdoor programs designed to foster deeper motivation and commitment among climbers.
This study was conducted to make changes to improve the system for assessing special physical and technical preparation. These changes applied to competitors aged 13–16 in artistic gymnastics. The age (13–16) covers a very important period in the gymnasts’ many years of sports training. These periods were targeted sports training and a period of sports improvement. Along with age-related development and changes in gymnasts’ psychological characteristics, their training was restructured entirely during these periods. At this age (13-16), the training process moved to a new, higher quality level. This level is characterized by the study of more complex exercises, connections, and entire combinations. Also, profound changes were observed in the training load in terms of volume and intensity as basic indicators of the training load. This implies a high level of physical qualities of gymnasts, which must be monitored and evaluated promptly. All this has also required optimizing the change methods known to date for controlling and assessing competitors’ preparation during these periods. In terms of sports training, according to famous authors, specialized physical and technical training was particularly important. That is why the subject of this study was how to control and successfully evaluate the indices, providing information about the level of technical and physical training at every moment of the gymnasts’ sports preparation. Furthermore, the unified program and methodology for training and practice in artistic gymnastics for men in the Republic of Bulgaria were established in 1987 (Yordanov, D. et al., 1987) and now require updating to address contemporary challenges faced by gymnasts. Purpose of the study . After a long period during which 298 gymnasts were tested, changes were made to the system for the control and assessment of special physical and technical sports preparation by optimizing the existing normative tables (50-grade scale) and changing the indices. Methodology . The research methods used were testing and registering the indices, subsequent statistical analyses, such as variance analysis, and the sigma method. Expected results . The results of the study would help artistic gymnastics specialists in their practical work by enabling the preparation of gymnasts to be qualitatively evaluated and controlled at every moment of sports preparation, as well as enriching their theoretical preparation with upgraded normative tables.
Introduction : Disruptions in cortisol awakening response (CAR), changes in Profile of Mood States (POMS), and decreases in heart rate variability (HRV) have been associated with fatigue and strenuous exercise. Whey protein isolate (WH) may improve stress responses. Purpose : To determine the effects of WH supplementation on CAR, POMS, and HRV after strenuous exercise. Methodology : Eleven recreationally active females (19 ± 2 yrs) completed a double-blinded, placebo-controlled crossover trial. Placebo (PL) was maltodextrin, and the intervention was 25 g of maltodextrin with 25 g of WH consumed prior to exercise. Exercise was 30 min at 70-75% VO 2peak (M = 21.7, SD = 0.1 ml/kg/min), 5 min rest, and 30 s Wingate anaerobic test (WAnT). HRV and POMS were recorded the following morning. Repeated measures ANOVA determined differences (p < .05) in 60 min salivary cortisol AUCg (CAR), POMS, HRV, and WAnT fatigue index (FI). Pearson’s correlation and multiple regression identified associations between CAR, POMS, HRV, and FI. Results : CAR was significantly different ( p = .033) between Placebo (33.4 ± 2.0 pg/dL*hr) and WH (30.9 ± 0.8 pg/dL*hr), with no significant differences in POMS, HRV, or FI. There was a significant correlation between POMS and FI on Day 3 during PL ( r = -.582, p = .030). Neither CAR, POMS, nor HRV was able to predict FI (all p > .05). Conclusions : Whey protein isolate may decrease CAR, but may have no effect on POMS, HRV, or FI, and no effect on short-duration sprint cycling performance. Limitations : WAnT performance was not affected; therefore, any association with reducing the physiological effects of central fatigue may be minimal. Practical applications may include a viable methodology for suppressing CAR in this type of participant. Originality : The current study is unique in combining nutritional supplementation, exercise, and salivary cortisol post-exercise with female participants.
Background: Increasing evidence suggests that repeated sprint training (RST) enhances performance in male basketball players, yet findings have not been quantitatively synthesized. Purpose: To meta-analyze the effects of RST on countermovement jump (CMJ), linear sprint, and change-of-direction (COD) performance versus control. Methodology: Systematic searches of PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus identified peer-reviewed controlled trials of basketball players with baseline and follow-up measures. A random-effects meta-analysis was performed; study quality was assessed using the PEDro scale. Prespecified moderators were age, program duration, training frequency, inter-sprint recovery, and sprint direction; subgroup analyses explored heterogeneity. Results: Nine studies ( n = 213) met the inclusion criteria. Pooled effects were small-to-moderate: CMJ (ES = 0.39, 95% CI 0.04–0.74; Z = 2.19; p = .03), linear sprint (ES = -0.40, 95% CI -0.75 to -0.06; Z = 2.29; p = .02), and COD (ES = −1.11, 95% CI −1.73 to −0.50; Z = 3.54; p = .0004). Most subgroup differences were not significant ( p = .0004–1.00), but in COD performance, the sprint subgroup (ES = −1.02, p = .002) and the COD subgroup (ES = −1.68, p = .02) showed larger effects and reached statistical significance. Conclusions: RST can improve CMJ and COD in male basketball players, with a borderline improvement in linear sprint speed; the largest gains appear in COD. While most subgroup differences were non-significant, larger improvements in COD were observed in specific sprint and COD subgroups. Limitations and Consequences: Evidence is limited by few trials, modest samples, and protocol variability, which may constrain generalizability. Practical Implications: Adult athletes using ≤30-s inter-sprint recovery and <3 weekly sessions may experience larger benefits; coaches can integrate RST accordingly. Originality: This is a focused quantitative synthesis of RST-induced neuro-muscular adaptations in male basketball players.
Change-of-direction (COD) ability is a critical component of performance in many team sports, yet practical methods to acutely enhance COD remain underexplored. This study aimed to determine whether adding a brief, targeted warm-up focused on gluteal muscle activation to a general warm-up could acutely improve COD performance in university athletes. Seventeen male athletes participated in a two-day, parallel-group controlled trial. On both days, all participants completed a standardized general warm-up. On the second day, the experimental group performed an additional three-minute targeted warm-up (band squats, band lateral walks, skater hops), while the control group proceeded directly to testing. COD performance was assessed using the Lane Agility Drill before and after intervention. The main result was that only the experimental group, which received targeted activation exercises, showed a significant improvement in COD performance (p < .01), whereas the control group showed no significant change. These findings suggest that a short, muscle-specific warm-up can effectively and immediately enhance COD ability, even without high-intensity or specialized equipment. The study’s limitations include a small, homogeneous sample of male university athletes and the use of a single COD test, which may restrict generalizability. Future research should examine whether similar effects occur across other populations and sports, and with various COD assessments. Practically, the protocol offers a simple, time-efficient approach for coaches and athletes to optimize performance in settings where rapid directional changes are essential. The originality of this study lies in demonstrating that acute performance gains can be achieved through accessible, field-based exercises integrated into existing warm-up routines.
Sports performance is influenced by several factors. Psychological factors are a main contributor to sports performance, but are themselves influenced by the athlete’s environment, e.g., social environment, financial situation, and so on. It is therefore necessary to assess the influence of environmental factors on competitive performance, which is likely to occur through psychological mechanisms. To this purpose, 592 athletes between 13 and 65 years of age (28.04 ± 9.15, 357 female, 204 male, 2 of unspecified gender) at various performance levels were surveyed using a set of questionnaires (MIPS, CSAI, GSE, TDEQ5 and additional questions) regarding their psychological and competitive performance as well as their perceptions of their social situation and social environment. Differences in environmental and psychological factors were found between different athlete groups, e.g. according to gender (e. g. self-efficacy being higher in male participants, p ≤ .010, η = .114), handedness (e. g. left-handers perceiving their social surroundings as more perfectionistic), and sport involved (e. g. higher values for CSAI worry in team sports, p ≤ .038, η = .009). Connections between performance and several environmental factors (e.g., highest competitive level and family, p ≤ .017, r = -.102) and intercorrelations among psychological scales, such as MIPS and CSAI, were also found. Self-efficacy correlated with highest competitive level in the current main sport (p ≤ .006, r = -.120) as well as CSAI worry (p ≤ .002, r = -.138), thus showing a probable effect of expected self-efficacy and CSAI worry on sports performance, while self-efficacy itself correlated with and was therefore most probably influenced by several environmental factors, for instance social environment (p ≤ .001, r = -.170), finances (p ≤ .001, r = -.206) and sleep quality (p ≤ .001, r = -.252), amongst others, and CSAI worry was influenced by perfectionism of the environment (e. g. MIPS coach, p ≤ .001, r = -.3420). Therefore, it can be said that sports performance is most likely influenced by a set of environmental factors (e.g., family, social surroundings, perfectionism of family, coach, and team) via psychological factors such as self-efficacy and CSAI. Psychological performance itself is a factor that influences sports performance, but it is most likely also the link through which environmental factors influence sports performance.
