Aflatoxin contamination of edible oils has a severe impact on human health due to its toxic effects. The present study aimed to evaluate aflatoxin B1 contamination in sesame and sunflower seeds and oils supplied in Shahrekord city using the ELISA method. A total of 100 samples, including 25 sunflower oil samples, 25 sesame oil samples, 25 sunflower seed samples, and 25 sunflower oil samples, were randomly sampled from Shahrekord market over two months and transferred to the laboratory. The samples were evaluated using the ELISA method. The results showed that all samples, including sunflower and sesame oil and seeds sampled in Shahrekord city, were contaminated with aflatoxin B1, but none of the contaminations exceeded the limits set by the Iranian national standard. Of the 100 sunflower and sesame oil and seed samples sampled, 11 samples (11%) were less than 1 µ/kg, 13 samples (13%) were in the range of 1 to 2 µg/kg, 59 samples (59%) were in the range of 2 to 4 µ/kg, and 17 samples (17%) were in the range of 4 to 5 µ/kg contaminated with aflatoxin B1. The results of the present study showed that the consumption of sunflower and sesame oil and seeds available in Shahrekord city does not pose any worrying health risks to consumers.
Recent advances in food processing have led to a significant expansion in the variety of food packaging materials. Food packaging plays a vital role in preventing product contamination, preserving quality and freshness, protecting against environmental factors, and safeguarding consumer health. The primary objective of these hygienic measures is to ensure product safety and integrity throughout the entire production and consumption process. This study reviews the materials commonly used in food packaging and discusses the overall importance and conceptual framework of packaging. It also addresses the negative impacts of packaging material residues on both food and the environment, as well as potential alternatives to mitigate these effects. Relevant information was collected from books, scientific articles, published theses, and reputable national databases (Magiran, SID), as well as international scientific resources (Thomson Reuters, Scopus, Islamic World Science Citation Center [ISC], and PubMed). The findings indicate that a variety of conventional materials are employed in food packaging, including plastics, paper and cardboard, glass, metals, and edible films and coatings. Among these, paper and cardboard are among the oldest forms of flexible packaging, while plastics are the most widely used in the food industry. Research also shows a growing trend toward the use of biopolymers as alternatives to conventional synthetic polymers. Notably, edible films and coatings appear to have the least environmental impact. In conclusion, this review underscores that food packaging is not only essential for product safety and preservation but also serves as a medium for conveying cultural values across nations.
In recent years, the utilization of natural compounds with antimicrobial properties in bio‑based packaging has attracted considerable attention, as these compounds can enhance food safety while reducing the use of chemical preservatives. In this study, the effect of adding microencapsulated watercress (Nasturtium officinale) extract on the microbial characteristics of soy polysaccharide films was investigated. The plant extract was obtained by ultrasound‑assisted extraction, and the total phenolic content as well as the antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus were determined. For microencapsulation, maltodextrin–whey protein concentrate was used as wall material. Subsequently, different concentrations of the free and microencapsulated watercress extract (750 and 1000 mg/L) were incorporated into the soy polysaccharide films, and the antimicrobial properties of the resulting films were examined. Based on the results, the total phenolic content of the extract was 382.64 ± 1.25 mg gallic acid/g, indicating a high antimicrobial potential. Seven compounds (99.12%) were identified in the extract, with the major components being quercetin (41.36%), gallic acid (23.33%), and ferulic acid (18.18%). According to the microbial analyses, films containing the extract exhibited strong antimicrobial activity against pathogenic bacteria, and the activity increased with both higher extract concentration and microencapsulation. Overall, the soy polysaccharide film containing 1000 mg/L of microencapsulated watercress extract demonstrated substantial potential as an active antimicrobial packaging material for food preservation.
In recent years, the use of natural compounds with antimicrobial properties in bio-based packaging has attracted considerable attention, as these compounds can enhance food safety while reducing the need for synthetic preservatives. This study investigated the effect of Ferulago subpinnata essential oil combined with a konjac gum (Amorphophalus konjac) edible coating on the shelf life of refrigerated quail meat stored for 16 days. For this purpose, aqueous solutions of konjac were prepared in 3 treatments of 0, 500, and 1000 mg/L of Ferulago subpinnata essential oil, and the fillet samples were immersed in the prepared solutions. The results showed that using the essential oil with the coating slowed the increase in oxidative deterioration indices compared to the control (p<0.05). Microbial loads increased over time in all treatments, but the increase was more pronounced in the control compared to the other treatments. The best results were observed with the 1000 mg/L essential oil + konjac gum treatment, which maintained the maximum microbial limit (7 log CFU/g) throughout storage, while the control reached this limit after only 6 days. This higher oil concentration treatment also maintained acceptable chemical indicators up to 12 days of storage. In conclusion, Ferulago subpinnata essential oil combined with a konjac gum coating can be used to effectively maintain the chemical and microbial quality of refrigerated quail meat during extended storage periods.
Recent advances in food processing have led to a significant expansion in the variety of food packaging materials. Food packaging plays a vital role in preventing product contamination, preserving quality and freshness, protecting against environmental factors, and safeguarding consumer health. The primary objective of these hygienic measures is to ensure product safety and integrity throughout the entire production and consumption process. This study reviews the materials commonly used in food packaging and discusses the overall importance and conceptual framework of packaging. It also addresses the negative impacts of packaging material residues on both food and the environment, as well as potential alternatives to mitigate these effects. Relevant information was collected from books, scientific articles, published theses, and reputable national databases (Magiran, SID), as well as international scientific resources (Thomson Reuters, Scopus, Islamic World Science Citation Center [ISC], and PubMed). The findings indicate that a variety of conventional materials are employed in food packaging, including plastics, paper and cardboard, glass, metals, and edible films and coatings. Among these, paper and cardboard are among the oldest forms of flexible packaging, while plastics are the most widely used in the food industry. Research also shows a growing trend toward the use of biopolymers as alternatives to conventional synthetic polymers. Notably, edible films and coatings appear to have the least environmental impact. In conclusion, this review underscores that food packaging is not only essential for product safety and preservation but also serves as a medium for conveying cultural values across nations.
Due to the concerns raised about the use of chemical antioxidants in food formulation, research on the use of natural compounds as alternatives has been developed. The use of these compounds in the formulation of food and pharmaceutical products requires methods that protect their structure in adverse environmental conditions and facilitate gradual release. Bioactive peptides produced from aquatic sources are one of the natural sources of antioxidants. In this research, at first, the bioactive peptides obtained from the enzymatic hydrolysis of lanternfish were nanencapsulated using the freeze-drying method and maltodextrin-gum arabic combination coating. In the next step, the antioxidant activity and stability of this property were evaluated during 60 days of storage of free peptides and carrier nanocapsules at refrigerator temperature. According to the results, nanoencapsulation of bioactive peptides using the aforementioned coating and method, in addition to increasing their antioxidant activity (p < 0.05), significantly contributed to the stability of this property during storage of carrier nanocapsules at 4 °C. Also, increasing the concentration of peptides and carrier nanocapsules from 100 to 200 μg/ml was associated with an increase in the ability to inhibit ABTS and Hydroxyl radicals (p<0.05). According to the findings, the release rate of peptides in the SGF (Simulated Gastric Fluid) was significantly lower than SIF (Simulated Intestinal Fluid) (p<0.05). Based on the results, the produced peptides have the potential to be used in food formulations as antioxidant compounds, and this potential becomes more stable with nanoencapsulation. Also, the freeze-drying method using maltodextrin-gum arabic combined coating for nanoencapsulation can properly protect the peptides against acidic and enzymatic conditions.
Lighvan cheese is the most famous Iranian brined cheese, traditionally produced from ewe's milk in the Lighvan village, Tabriz. Due to the limited and seasonal availability of ewe's milk in the Lighvan region, there is a need to explore the production of Lighvan cheese using milk from other species, such as buffalo and goat, or a mixture of these milks. This study aimed to produce Lighvan cheese using equal proportions of unpasteurized buffalo/goat milk and buffalo/sheep milk, and to assess the microbial properties (total count, lactobacilli, coliforms, mold, and yeast) of the resulting cheeses, comparing them to traditional Lighvan cheese as a control. The cheese samples were produced in an artisanal cheese plant in Lighvan and stored at 4°C. Microbial properties were analyzed every 15 days for up to 90 days. The total count of mold and yeast in the samples was lower than in the control (p<0.05). The lactobacilli count in the samples was higher than in the control, with a significant increase observed in the buffalo/goat milk sample (p<0.05). Throughout the maturation process, the total bacterial count, coliforms, lactobacilli, and yeast populations decreased, while the mold count fluctuated with successive increases and decreases. Based on the results of this study, it is concluded that a mixture of buffalo and goat milk can serve as a suitable substitute for whole ewe’s milk in the production of Lighvan cheese.
Microbiological safety in production is essential for enhancing product quality and extending shelf life in the food industry. As dairy companies increasingly prioritize high product standards, thorough cleaning of equipment components has become a critical focus for dairy equipment manufacturers. This review explores the key factors influencing effective equipment cleaning, drawing on research articles and books from Springer, ScienceDirect, Scopus, and John Wiley, as well as successful practices from established dairy factories. According to the literature, Cleaning-In-Place (CIP) systems are the most effective method for meeting the stringent hygiene requirements of dairy processing equipment. CIP effectiveness depends on four key variables: temperature, mechanical action (or pressure), chemical concentration, and cleaning duration. These factors ensure cleanliness on physical, chemical, and microbiological levels. Typically, a caustic soda solution (0.5%–2%) is used at 70–80°C for 10–30 minutes to remove organic residues, while nitric acid (0.5%–1%) is applied at 55–75°C for 5–20 minutes to eliminate mineral deposits. Finally, hot water (90–95°C) is used for 10–30 minutes for disinfection.
The accuracy—encompassing both precision and trueness—of laboratory performance in measuring food toxins, particularly aflatoxins due to their significant impact on human health, is critically important. Proficiency testing, conducted by an independent and impartial body, is a recognized method for assessing the accuracy of laboratory results. A proficiency test was conducted to evaluate laboratory performance in aflatoxin analysis. The assigned value of aflatoxins in the test samples and the proficiency test standard deviation (σₚₜ) were determined based on consensus values derived from participant results. Laboratory performance was evaluated and compared using Z-scores. Results indicated that 22 out of 26 participating laboratories (85%) achieved acceptable results for aflatoxin B1, while 4 laboratories were flagged as unacceptable (action signal). For aflatoxins B2 and G1, 22 (88%) and 19 (76%) out of 25 laboratories demonstrated acceptable performance, respectively. The highest rate of unacceptable results was observed in the analysis of aflatoxin B1. The findings suggest that although most laboratories are equipped with advanced analytical instruments, there remains a significant gap in the technical knowledge and expertise of some operators.
Fresh pistachios are highly perishable. This study examined the effect of melatonin (0–0.6%) on fresh pistachios (Badami variety) using response surface methodology (RSM) with a central composite design (CCD), followed by storage at room temperature for 40 days. High coefficients of determination, significant p-values, and a non-significant lack of fit for the responses confirmed a good model fit. Results showed that melatonin treatment effectively reduced weight loss and preserved kernel hardness. Antioxidant activity increased with phenolic compound levels, and the interaction between melatonin and storage time had a synergistic effect on antioxidant activity. Although the decay rate increased during storage, melatonin treatment slowed the decay process. Melatonin also increased phenolic content and the activity of antioxidant enzymes (catalase, superoxide dismutase, and ascorbate peroxidase). While peroxide value and microbial contamination increased over time, the increase was less pronounced in treated pistachios (p < 0.05). The control group (melatonin: 0%, time 0–40 days) showed the highest decay, bacterial growth, and peroxide value, along with the lowest antioxidant levels. These findings support the role of melatonin in preserving pistachio quality. The optimal treatment was 0.5% melatonin for 22 days of storage, with a desirability index of 0.57. Model validation was confirmed, as experimental values did not significantly (p > 0.05) differ from predicted values.
Campylobacteriosis is one of the most common foodborne microbial diseases worldwide. This infection is primarily caused by Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli, with common symptoms including gastroenteritis and, in some cases, neurological disorders. This review examines all published studies on the prevalence of Campylobacter in food sold in the Iranian market. Poultry meat is the primary source of transmission of Campylobacter to humans, while red meat, dairy products, and button mushrooms also serve as secondary sources. A less explored topic in Iranian studies is the prevalence of Campylobacter in traditional meat and dairy sale centers. Currently, there is insufficient information about the prevalence and transmission of this pathogen, as well as other pathogens, in these traditional retail outlets. These centers often exhibit low levels of food hygiene knowledge, which can contribute to disease outbreaks in the community. Therefore, it is crucial for regulatory bodies to establish and implement appropriate standards for controlling Campylobacter and other foodborne pathogens. Concerning antibiotic resistance, it is essential to limit the excessive use of antibiotics in livestock and poultry farming, as well as in the treatment of human diseases.
Ostrich meat (Struthio camelus) is recognized as one of the leanest and healthiest red meats, with shelf life being a critical factor for both the meat industry and consumers. This study evaluated the effect of a composite edible coating composed of chitosan and cress seed gum (CH-CSG), in combination with sesame meal protein hydrolysate (SMPH), on the shelf life of ostrich fillets during 12 days of refrigerated storage. SMPH was initially produced using microbial proteases (alcalase and flavourzyme), and its protein content and degree of hydrolysis were assessed. To examine the preservation efficacy, four treatments were applied: a control (no coating), CH-CSG coating alone, CH-CSG with 0.5% SMPH, and CH-CSG with 1% SMPH. pH, total viable count, and psychrotrophic bacterial count were monitored at regular intervals. The results indicated that SMPH produced using alcalase (90 min) exhibited significantly higher protein content and degree of hydrolysis compared to that made with flavourzyme (p < 0.05). Fillets treated with the SMPH-enriched coatings showed significantly reduced microbial growth (p < 0.05) relative to both the control and the CH-CSG coating without SMPH. Notably, the treatment containing CH-CSG and 1% SMPH was the most effective, maintaining microbial counts below the acceptable limit (7 log CFU/g) throughout the storage period, whereas the control samples exceeded this threshold after six days. These findings suggest that the CH-CSG coating enriched with 1% SMPH is a promising natural preservative for extending the shelf life of ostrich meat.
Balanced nutrition plays a critical role in reducing healthcare costs and improving overall community health. This study aimed to assess the quality of cooking oil used in hospital food preparation across Rasht. The experimental design considered two preparation methods (dietary: D1 vs. non-dietary: D2), two food types (solid: mixed [F1] vs. semi-solid with solid pieces [F2]), and two hospital types (public: H1 vs. private: H2). Key oil quality parameters—including absorption rate, acidity, peroxide value, anisidine value, and total Totox value—were evaluated. The results revealed significant differences (p ≤ 0.05) in oil absorption and oxidative indices across food types and hospital categories. Semi-solid foods exhibited higher oil absorption (7.81%) compared to solid foods (3.49%), whereas solid foods showed greater oxidative deterioration. Dietary cooking methods yielded better outcomes in both hospital types, with reduced oil absorption and improved oxidative stability. Notably, solid foods were more prone to oxidative spoilage in both public and private hospital settings. These findings underscore the importance of improving cooking practices, selecting high-quality raw ingredients, and optimizing thermal processing parameters in hospital food services. The implementation of targeted staff training programs on proper cooking techniques is recommended to enhance nutritional quality and uphold food safety standards in healthcare environments.
Meat and meat products are important dietary sources of protein, and their consumption has increased in recent years due to advances in modern production techniques. However, the high nutritional and economic value of meat also creates opportunities for adulteration and fraud. This study aimed to investigate the presence of unauthorized tissues in sausages and Persian sausages (Kalbas) sold in Mahshahr County. The study was conducted in the summer of 2024. A total of 50 samples—25 sausages and 25 Kalbas—were collected from local retail outlets and transported to the food hygiene laboratory for analysis. The samples were examined using histological and PCR methods to detect the presence of unauthorized tissues. The results revealed that 26 out of 50 samples contained unauthorized tissues. Of these, 20 were sausage samples (80%) and 6 were Kalbas samples (24%). In sausages, the most commonly detected unauthorized tissue was cartilage (36%), while in Kalbas, skin tissue was most prevalent (16%). The highest rates of adulteration were observed in sausages and hot dogs with lower declared meat content. Specifically, products with less than 61% meat content contained unauthorized tissues in 56% (sausages) and 8% (Kalbas) of samples, respectively. In contrast, those with more than 61% meat content showed unauthorized tissues in 24% (sausages) and 8% (Kalbas) of samples. These findings indicate a significant level of meat product adulteration in Mahshahr County. Therefore, regulatory authorities are urged to enforce stricter laws and monitoring procedures to address and prevent such violations.
Blanching is a crucial step in the processing of fruits and vegetables, as it inactivates enzymes and helps preserve nutritional quality, bioactive compounds, texture, and color. This study investigated the effects of hot water, steam, and microwave blanching (applied for 60, 90, and 120 seconds) on sweet bell peppers, focusing on weight loss, color, antioxidant activity, ascorbic acid and phenolic content, and peroxidase enzyme inactivation. Weight loss varied significantly across blanching methods, with the lowest loss (2.36%) observed in microwave blanching at 60 seconds, and the highest (12.10%) in hot water blanching at 120 seconds. Peroxidase enzyme inactivation was incomplete after 60 seconds for all methods. The most substantial reduction in peroxidase activity was achieved with microwave blanching at 120 seconds, whereas hot water blanching at 60 seconds resulted in the least reduction (p < 0.05). Total phenolic content increased with all blanching methods, ranging from 7.4–65.31% for hot water, 11.56–44.8% for steam, and 11.12–67.16% for microwave treatments. Ascorbic acid loss was minimal with microwave and steam blanching at 60 seconds but peaked with hot water blanching at 120 seconds, with longer blanching durations generally leading to greater losses. Antioxidant activity showed the least increase following hot water blanching at 60 seconds and the most with microwave blanching at 90 seconds. Blanching also significantly influenced color parameters (p < 0.05), with extended treatment durations resulting in increased L*, a*, and b* values. These findings underscore the importance of selecting appropriate blanching methods and durations to optimize the quality and nutritional retention of sweet bell peppers.
Mycotoxins pose various toxic and carcinogenic risks to both animal and human health. Aflatoxin B1, a secondary metabolite produced by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, is of particular concern due to its potential to compromise food safety and endanger consumer health. This study aimed to detect and compare the levels of aflatoxin B1 in different types of Persian sausages (Kalbas) sold in Karaj County using the ELISA method. In this study, 90 samples of Persian sausages—both with and without nuts—were randomly collected from retail outlets in Karaj County during the winter of 2022. The samples were transported under hygienic, refrigerated conditions to a food hygiene laboratory, where they were analyzed for aflatoxin B1 content using the ELISA technique. Among the 90 samples, 47 (52.22%) were found to be contaminated with aflatoxin B1. Contamination was more prevalent in nut-containing Persian sausages. The highest levels of aflatoxin B1 were detected in dry Persian sausages with nuts (100%), followed by pepperoni with nuts (93.33%) and mortadella with nuts (86.66%). Despite the detected contamination, none of the samples exceeded the permissible limits set by Iranian food safety standards. The majority of contaminated samples (55.85%) had aflatoxin B1 levels below 10 µg/kg. Based on the findings, consumption of these products does not currently pose a serious health risk. However, to further minimize exposure, it is recommended that regulatory authorities implement stricter controls and guidelines to reduce aflatoxin B1 contamination in meat products.
Dairy products are essential components of the human diet; however, the growing prevalence of lactose intolerance, casein allergy, shifts toward vegetarian and vegan lifestyles, and increasing environmental concerns have led to a rising interest in plant-based beverages as alternatives to animal milk. These beverages are aqueous liquids primarily derived from plant sources such as grains, legumes, nuts, seeds, and pseudo-cereals, and are considered healthy and environmentally sustainable substitutes for dairy products. This review aims to provide a comprehensive examination of the nutritional and physiological benefits of plant-based beverages, their production processes, and the challenges associated with fermented variants, particularly in the context of probiotics. Relevant scientific literature was retrieved and analyzed using the keywords "plant-based beverage," "fermentation," "probiotics," and "lactic acid bacteria" from reputable databases including PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science. The findings indicate that plant-based beverages are rich sources of dietary fiber, vitamins, and bioactive compounds, making them viable alternatives to traditional dairy products. Moreover, fermentation with lactic acid bacteria enhances their nutritional profile and functional properties. Nevertheless, several challenges remain, including achieving desirable sensory characteristics, ensuring the viability of probiotics during storage, and improving nutritional content. These challenges are influenced by factors such as the selection of raw materials, probiotic strains, fermentation conditions, and packaging methods. This review underscores the importance of developing efficient starter cultures and optimizing production processes to improve the quality and health benefits of fermented plant-based beverages.
Sarcocystis spp. are cyst-forming intracellular protozoan parasites characterized by an obligate two-host life cycle involving carnivores as definitive hosts and herbivorous animals as intermediate hosts. In Iran, a high prevalence of Sarcocystis infection has been reported among domestic animals, including cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, and camels. The present study aimed to determine the prevalence of Sarcocystis infection in slaughtered buffaloes in Urmia city using PCR. A total of 100 buffalo heads, randomly selected from animals slaughtered in Urmia in the year 1402 (2023–2024), were examined. Tissue samples were collected from the esophagus, diaphragm, heart, tongue, jaw, and intercostal muscles. Both macroscopic examination and molecular analysis targeting the 18S rRNA gene were performed. Macroscopic inspection revealed visible Sarcocystis cysts in 5% of the samples. However, PCR analysis detected Sarcocystis DNA in 12% of tissue samples. Statistical analysis indicated a significantly higher prevalence of infection in older buffaloes compared to calves (p < 0.05), whereas no significant association was found between infection prevalence and sex (p > 0.05). These findings indicate a relatively high rate of Sarcocystis infection (12%) among buffaloes in Urmia. Given the potential for zoonotic transmission of Sarcocystis hominis via the consumption of infected buffalo meat—which may cause gastrointestinal illness in humans—preventive measures are recommended. These include thorough inspection of carcasses at slaughterhouses, removal of visibly infected tissues, and public education on the risks of consuming raw or undercooked meat.
Meat products are rich in various nutritive substances and can easily be attacked by different microorganisms. This study investigated the microbial quality of hamburgers distributed in Tehran, focusing on the susceptibility of meat products to various microorganisms. From December 2021 to March 2022, a total of 50 hamburger samples -25 industrial and 25 handmade- were randomly collected from different supply centers in the city. The microbial quality was assessed according to the National Standards, measuring total microbial counts and identifying contaminants such as Salmonella, coagulase-positive Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, mold, and yeast. Results indicated that the average total microbial count for industrial hamburgers was 4.08±0.22 log CFU/g, with E. coli at 65.33±44.24 MPN/g, and mold and yeast at 3.46±0.25 log CFU/g. In contrast, handmade hamburgers had significantly higher counts: 6.11±0.22 log CFU/g for total microbial count, 250.99±174.32 MPN/g for E. coli, and 5.09±0.25 log CFU/g for mold and yeast. Notably, none of the samples tested positive for Salmonella, and coagulase-positive S. aureus levels remained within acceptable limits. However, 48% of homemade hamburger samples exceeded national standards for total microbial count, while 12% exceeded for E. coli; industrial samples showed no exceedances. Concerning mold and yeast contamination, 76% of industrial samples and all handmade samples surpassed the national standard. Overall, handmade hamburgers exhibited significantly higher levels of microbial contamination than their industrial counterparts in Tehran.
Considering the adverse effects of heavy metals on consumer health, this study aimed to quantify the contamination levels of arsenic, cadmium, lead, and mercury in traditional and industrial Doogh sold in Shahrekord retail outlets. Inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) was used to measure the concentrations of these metals in 80 Doogh samples (40 industrial and 40 traditional). The results showed that arsenic levels were below the detection limit of the device. Two samples were contaminated: one (1.25%) with 400.63 µg/L of cadmium and one (1.25%) with 144.72 µg/L of lead. The average mercury level in all samples was 6.35 ± 13.20 µg/L. Twelve samples of industrial Doogh and eight samples of traditional Doogh contained mercury levels exceeding 10 µg/L. The average mercury concentrations in industrial and traditional Doogh were 2.41 ± 6.00 µg/L and 7.83 ± 12.74 µg/L in summer, respectively, and 13.69 ± 19.59 µg/L and 1.47 ± 6.46 µg/L in winter, respectively (p<0.05). Potential sources of heavy metals in Doogh include milk, salt, and water. Variations in the concentration of these metals can be attributed to factors such as the type of feed given to animals during different seasons, the type of animals in traditional versus industrial livestock operations, differences in production and processing stages, environmental pollution in various regions, and the quality of drinking water in animal husbandry facilities.
