Soil moisture retention (SMR) is the most important soil physical property that directly capture the soil’s capacity to store plant available water in hydrological analysis and for determining irrigation water requirements for agricultural crops, Characterisation of SMR at Field Capacity (FC) and Permanent Wilting Point (PWP) is important for agricultural water management, but due to the lack of technical expertise and high cost of pressure plate apparatus, this information is not readily available. So, in this study we adopted alternate method “modelling approach”. Literature based nine pedotransfer functions (PTFs) were identified/selected for predicting FC and PWP with minimum available dataset of biophysical variables. About 200 soil samples were collected from different agroclimatic zones of Punjab to calibrate (n = 78) and validate (n = 40) the selected PTFs. The models were evaluated using statistical indicators like Root Mean Square Error (RMSE), Index of Agreement (d) and mean absolute error (MAE). The PTF model developed by Pidgeon [45] and by Gupta and Larson [27] for PWP performed best, prediction capability of resp. models on validation showed RMSE-0.05, d-0.72. MAE-0.049 at FC and RMSE-0.048, d-0.770. MAE-0.041 at PWP. With the best PTFs, database of biophysical variables such as of sand, silt, clay, and SOC extracted from 520 pedons of Punjab soils was used to predict FC and PWP. The predictions were then mapped using the QGIS software. Maps revealed that in Punjab soils FC, PWP, and AW ranged from 0.131 to 0.387, 0.009–0.228, 0.113–0.183 (cm3 cm− 3), respectively. The findings highlight that validated PTF regression models can be used to predict soil moisture characteristics. Mapping the predicted information revealed the spatial variability of soil moisture content across the region that would help to configure the efficient utilisation of available water resources.
Accurate assessment of soil moisture is essential for effective irrigation management, particularly in soils with contrasting textures. Soil water availability is governed by the relationship between volumetric soil water content (θv) and soil water potential (Ψ), which varies with soil texture. The objective of this study was to develop empirical θv-Ψ relationships for twelve USDA soil textural classes and to evaluate the influence of soil texture on soil moisture and soil water potential dynamics. An outdoor experiment was conducted using twelve soil textural classes, with Decagon EC-5 and Watermark 200SS sensors installed in soil-filled plastic containers. Sensor measurements were compared with the gravimetric method as the reference, and best-fit models were determined using regression analysis. Fine-textured soils (clay, silty clay, and clay loam) exhibited higher θv and showed more gradual changes in Ψ, whereas coarse-textured soils (sand and loamy sand) retained less water and showed rapid declines in Ψ with decreasing θv. Average threshold values of approximately 40 and 44 kPa were identified for the gravimetric-Watermark and Decagon EC-5-Watermark relationships, respectively. Strong relationships were observed between θv measured using the Decagon EC-5 sensor and gravimetrically determined θv, with coefficients of determination ranging from R2 = 0.987 to 0.997 and RMSE values between 0.29
Black wattle (Acacia mearnsii) encroachment into native habitats can modify soil properties, which in turn affects general ecosystem functioning. This study determined pH, moisture content, phosphorus, nitrogen, carbon, total dissolved solids (TDS), and soil electrical conductivity (EC) between areas invaded by Acacia mearnsii and native vegetation in the Vumba area. It was hypothesized that soils in invaded sites would exhibit significantly higher concentrations of soil organic carbon and total nitrogen, but significantly lower pH levels and lower moisture content, compared to adjacent non-invaded sites. Soil samples were collected in May 2025 from a depth of 30 cm using an auger, utilizing equal sampling across set 25 m × 25 m plots within two distinct strata: Invaded habitats and native plant habitats. Laboratory analyses were performed to determine the selected soil chemical properties, and a paired t-test was conducted using Minitab 17 statistical software. Acacia mearnsii invasion significantly altered soil chemical properties, with substantial differences observed between invaded and uninvaded sites. Significant variations were recorded for soil pH (p < 0.01), nitrogen (p < 0.001), carbon (p < 0.006), EC (p < 0.001), TDS (p < 0.001), and moisture content (p < 0.001); for all significant variables: (N = 20, df = 19). Conversely, phosphorus levels remained largely unaffected and showed no significant difference between the sampled sites (N = 20, df = 19, p = 0.165). Consequently, the initial hypothesis was accepted, as the data confirmed significant alterations in soil nutrients, acidity, and moisture levels following invasion. These findings highlight the disruptive impact of the species on soil chemistry, suggesting that invasive species management programs must be implemented to curtail further invasion in Vumba uplands.
Soil degradation expressed through salinization, organic carbon depletion, and contamination by persistent pollutants is intrinsically linked to the disruption of sulfur-organic matter interactions. This review critically evaluates engineered sulfur-based and organic amendments, focusing on industrial byproduct gypsum, elemental sulfur, designer biochar, and their composites, as tools for restoring these interactions. We synthesize mechanistic pathways governing sulfate retention, microbial sulfur cycling, and contaminant interference, and we assess field-scale performance using quantifiable engineering metrics. The central insight emerging from this synthesis is that no single amendment addresses all degradation pathways; rather, a fit-for-purpose selection guided by soil-specific constraints such as sodicity, pH, texture, and contaminant profile is essential. Key findings reveal that elemental sulfur oxidation achieves more than 80
Brazil is one of the world's leading producers of sugarcane, with its cultivation playing a central role in the supply of bioethanol for domestic use and export markets. As demand for renewable fuel continues to grow, there is an increasing need to enhance sugarcane productivity while ensuring environmental sustainability. Soil organic matter (SOM) is a critical determinant of soil health and productivity, and its dynamics are strongly influenced by agricultural management practices. Depending on the management approach adopted, sugarcane cultivation systems can either act as a net source or sink of carbon to the atmosphere. This review examines the key agricultural management practices that influence SOM dynamics and carbon sequestration in Brazilian sugarcane production systems. Evidence from the literature indicates that three management strategies are particularly effective in preserving SOM: (i) the adoption of “green cane” harvesting—which retains crop residues on the soil surface rather than burning them; (ii) the implementation of minimum tillage or no-till practices during crop replanting operations; and (iii) the maintenance of permanent soil cover throughout the cropping cycle. Together, these practices contribute to reducing soil carbon losses, improving soil structure, and supporting the long-term sustainability of sugarcane cultivation in Brazil.
Simulation of tillage operations is critical for precision management of soil-tool interactions, facilitating the conservation of soil structure. Improper use of machinery during land preparation in agriculture may lead to soil structure destruction. This paper aimed to analyze the effect of deep tillage on soil structure and the measured and simulated tillage resistance of the subsoiler cum rotary mixing implement. Soil bin measurements were collected using a motorized trolley with resistance sensors and a soil profilometer. A 3D geometry of the implement was created using PTC Creo Parametric 3D Modelling software, and the soil bed was modeled by discrete element (DE) particles using EDEM software. Accurate calibration of the DE model parameters was achieved by reproducing the soil bin. The cohesion between the particles was created by adding a cohesion resistance to the normal contact resistances to simulate the actual cohesive soil. It was found that the shape of the rotary blades significantly impacts the measured tillage resistance, the formed soil profile, and the simulations. The relative error of 0.4 R^2 at a NRMSE of 0.04, followed by the soil furrow with 0.9936 R^2 and NRMSE of 0.23 and vertical resistance with 0.9 R^2 and a NRMSE of 0.27. The unpaired T-Test showed no statistically significant difference (p>0.05) between simulation and experimental results. Regardless of tillage depth, soil layers cannot be destroyed with the proper blades on rotary tillers. DEM can be used as an accurate, consistent, and fast method of effectively predicting the final soil condition and resistances needed for tillage operations.
The long-term food security of Indo-Gangetic Plain depends heavily on the resilience of alluvial soil, which face compounding pressures from intensive multi-cropping and seasonal climatic extremes. Soil is a fundamental natural resource that supports agricultural productivity and seasonal changes are among the most important factors influencing soil chemical characteristics. We hypothesize that soil physicochemical characteristics in the study area would exhibit significant seasonal variation. Hence, our objective was to study the seasonal variation in the soil physical and chemical properties of the major agricultural fields in the Lucknow district and to infer the principal components responsible for the specific soil characteristics of a particular crop field. The study will provide insights into soil characteristics across different crop fields and assist farmers, researchers, and policymakers in crop management, thereby improving crop yields. The district is divided into 8 blocks, of which 6 were selected for soil sampling during 2023‒2025. Wheat, paddy, and mustard crop fields having major cover were selected for the study. Soil samples were collected from selected crop fields in each block, in replicate, on a seasonal basis, and brought to the laboratory for analysis following the standard methods. The texture of soil was sandy clay loam, loam, and sandy clay with an average 45
The biophysical field-based evaluation of the endogenous soil and water conservation (SWC) practices in the hilly region of sub-Saharan West Africa is lacking. To address this, the current study aims to evaluate the most commonly used erosion control practices in the hilly region of Boukombé through a rainfed field experiment conducted under sorghum over two growing seasons (2012–2013) on a hillside (22
An investigation into nutrient dynamics was carried out through field trials during the kharif growing seasons of 2019 and 2020. The research was conducted at the experimental fields of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel University of Agriculture and Technology’s Crop Research Centre in Meerut. Initial soil analysis indicated a sandy loam with neutral reaction conditions, with deficient organic carbon and nitrogen levels, while phosphorus and potassium concentrations were moderate. The experimental design incorporated fourteen distinct treatments, exploring various combinations of organic and inorganic nutrient sources. These treatments evaluated nitrogen substitution rates of 25
The purpose of the research was to assess the influence of area closure on soil physico-chemical properties. The differences between the closed and non-enclosed were compared. Soil samples were collected from demarcated study sites using an auger and core sampler at 20 cm soil depth in a zigzag sampling method from one hectare of closed areas (seven years old) and the same size of non-enclosed (free grazing) having similar agroecological conditions and topography. A total of 40 soil samples (20 for each site) were collected and combined into 10 soil composites and 6 soil core samples were taken to the laboratory for soil physico-chemical property analysis. The results indicated that mean values of soil physico-chemical properties of closed area is grater in organic carbon (5.56
Soil erosion remains difficult to measure reliably because detachment, transport, temporary storage, deposition, and export are expressed at different spatial and temporal scales, so even precise observations may still be weakly tied to process. UAV-based structure-from-motion photogrammetry (UAV-SfM) has made repeated, high-resolution topographic surveying practical, but it measures surface geometry and, in repeated surveys evaluated against uncertainty, detectable net surface change rather than erosion, soil loss, sediment export, or conservation effect directly. This structured critical review draws on peer-reviewed soil- and erosion-relevant photogrammetry studies published since 2005 that were identified through database searching and citation tracking, interpreted alongside a smaller contextual set of methodological papers, and synthesized through structured claim-level coding and evidential appraisal. Across the evidence base, UAV-SfM is strongest for direct reconstruction of soil microtopography, roughness, rills, and many exposed gully forms, but it becomes progressively more conditional when used to infer diffuse erosion, redistribution, connectivity, or conservation performance. Accordingly, the decisive issue is not image resolution alone, but whether change detection is supported by stable control, spatially explicit uncertainty, explicit treatment of non-erosional surface change, and independent process validation. UAV-SfM should therefore be understood first as a method for measuring soil-surface geometry and detectable net surface change; it becomes defensible evidence of erosion, deposition, redistribution, or conservation effect only when detectability, mechanism, storage context, and scale are explicitly constrained.
Abstract Biochar is widely applied in soils to improve environmental quality. However, reported biochar effects remain highly variable and often contradictory, even under similar experimental conditions. This inconsistency is commonly attributed to differences in feedstock, pyrolysis conditions, and soil properties. A fundamental limitation persists as biochar is usually applied on a mass basis, despite large variability in the functional properties that govern its environmental performance. Equal masses of different biochar do not deliver equivalent functional capacity. This perspective introduces the Principle of Functional Delivery (PoFuD), which reframes biochar application from a mass-based to a function-based. PoFuD proposes that biochar effects are determined by the type and quantity of functional capacity delivered rather than by the applied mass. This article outlines a functional standardisation approach in which biochar application is normalised to a target property (or process-relevant function), while all co-delivered properties are measured transparently and treated as contextual background. Adopting PoFuD would clarify dose-response relationships, improve comparability across studies, and strengthen mechanistic interpretation. This conceptual shift has broad implications for soil remediation, biogeochemistry, greenhouse gas mitigation, and policy-relevant biochar research, and provides a foundation for more robust experimental design and standardisation in environmental applications.
Evaluation of soil fertility is essential for sustainable agriculture; yet studies on nutrient distribution indices, particularly in Bangladesh, remain limited despite increasing research. The purpose of this study is to identify nutrient indices and create spatial distribution maps using ArcGIS in order to evaluate the macronutrient status of the soil in Khulna. In 2021, 22 soil samples, ranging in depth from 0 to 15 cm, were taken during a field survey. To assess soil fertility and nutrient index, those samples were submitted to physicochemical analyses in the lab using standard procedures. These analyses included total nitrogen (N), available phosphorus (P), available sulfur (S), available potassium (K), available calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg), and organic matter (OM). The findings showed wide variability in nutrient concentrations of N ranged from 0.001
Soil amendment with water-retentive and stress-mitigating materials, including biochar and superabsorbent polymers, has been shown to improve soil moisture availability and enhance plant tolerance to water deficit. The present study aimed to mitigate the adverse effects of drought stress in poplar by amending soil with biochar (BC), superabsorbent polymer (SAP) and silicon (Si), applied individually and in combination, and to evaluate their effects on morpho-physiological and biochemical responses under cyclic drought conditions on Poplar cuttings (Populus deltoides) which were grown in plastic pots under polyhouse conditions. Plant growth was significantly improved under well-watered conditions in amended soils, with biochar exhibiting the strongest individual effect. The combined treatment of biochar, superabsorbent polymer, and silicon (D_BC1_SAP1_Si1) under drought stress resulted in the greatest enhancement of growth, biomass accumulation, leaf area, and gas exchange attributes. The lowest EL leakage (72.67) and the highest MSI (34.33) was found in D_BC1_SAP1_Si1 treatment. The stress index based on ratio of MDA and RWC across various treatments revealed the lowest value in across all BC treatment (< 0.25) as compared to without BC. It was also observed that biochar combination outperforms in all combination of treatment. Soil nutrient availability remained largely unaffected by treatments, except for potassium and sulphur, whereas soil pH, electrical conductivity, and organic carbon content showed significant variation among treatments. The combined use of biochar, superabsorbent polymer, and silicon synergistically mitigated drought stress and offers a viable strategy for poplar plantations in water-scarce environments where agroforestry practices are important.
Biochar is widely used to improve crop productivity and soil health; however, its adoption remains limited due to insufficient quantification of benefits and unclear mechanisms, particularly within regenerative organic systems. We conducted a pot experiment applying biochar at 0 (control), 11.2, and 22.4 Mg ha⁻¹ to sandy loam and loam soils planted with sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) and measured plant performance, microbial biomass, and soil organic carbon (SOC). Yield was higher in sandy loam than loam (282 vs. 146 g plant⁻¹). Biochar increased loam yield from < 100 g plant⁻¹ (control) to 240 g plant⁻¹ at 22.4 Mg ha⁻¹, while sandy loam yield plateaued beyond 11.2 Mg ha⁻¹. Microbial biomass was greater in sandy loam (6845 ng g⁻¹) than loam (3737 ng g⁻¹) and declined 17
This study presents a comprehensive multi-scale investigation of lateritic soils from Dir (Adamawa, Cameroon) to assess and optimize their potential for producing compressed earth blocks (CEB) and cement-stabilized earth blocks (SEB). Twenty soil samples collected from four sites underwent geotechnical, mineralogical (XRD, IR), chemical (XRF), and microstructural (SEM-EDS) characterization, alongside mechanical and durability testing of fabricated blocks. The soils exhibit suitable particle size distributions and plasticity (PI = 8–12
Abstract Meeting the needs of a world population projected to exceed 9 billion by 2050 requires a 70–100% increase in agricultural output, posing a serious threat to sustainable agricultural practices. The agricultural system, reliant on the harsh application of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, continues to undermine environmental sustainability and overall food quality. This study investigates the impact of nutrient management practices, such as FYM, straw, green manure, and NPK fertilizers, on the soil bacterial community structure through 16 S rRNA sequencing. Key findings showed that certain bacterial phyla, such as Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, and Firmicutes, have the highest relative abundance and are involved in nutrient cycling, organic matter decomposition, and plant growth-promoting activities. Taxonomically distinct distributions were associated with each sample as well. Proteobacteria and Firmicutes predominated in control, NPK and NPK with Green Manure samples, while a change in phyla dominance was observed in NPK with FYM and NPK with wheat straw samples. Analysis at the genus level showed high proportions of Pseudomonas and Bacillus in the control and NPK samples, and of Sphingomonas in the NPK with FYM samples. Additional analyses on the diversity provided metrics of hypothesis-testing variation across samples, showing the most significant difference at NPK with FYM versus the control sample, which had the lowest metrics. The applied combinations of organic amendments with NPK fertilizer had greater effects on population and index metrics of microbial heterogeneity, suggesting beneficial impacts on the diversity of soil environments.
Abiotic stresses such as drought, salinity, extreme temperatures (cold, hot), heavy metal toxicity, flooding, pollutants, and nutrient imbalances are emerging as major threats to global agri-food and nutritional security, significantly constraining crop productivity and resilience. Nowadays, the situation has deteriorated owing to the accelerated and profound alterations in global climatic patterns. It is utmost need to understand and find out the various adaptive and alleviative practices to reduce the impact, in which plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) have the ability to assuage the negative impact of the various stresses and enhanced seed spices productivity and profitability. The interface between PGPR and crops under various stresses are positive worldwide. PGPR play a significant role in enhancing nutrient availability in the soil–plant–microbe system. Additionally, PGPR help lower ethylene levels, increase the concentration of osmolytes, and defend crops from oxidative injure under a diversity of environmental multiple stresses. The application of PGPR to seed spice crops represents a promising strategy to enhance productivity and improve plant resilience under various stress conditions. This review highlights the role of PGPR in mitigating abiotic stresses in seed spice crops and underscores the need for future research to develop effective, long-lasting microbial formulations that support sustainable cultivation under multiple stress conditions.
Reliable evaluation of rhizobial inoculant performance requires integrative assessment of nodulation and biomass responses under contrasting soil microbial environments. A controlled pot experiment was conducted to evaluate cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp.) responses to inoculation with Sinorhizobium fredii, Bradyrhizobium japonicum, mineral nitrogen (urea), and a non-inoculated control under heat-treated and unsterilized sandy loam soils. Treatments were arranged in a completely randomised design with three replicates and monitored up to 10 weeks after planting (WAP). Nodulation, vegetative growth, shoot biomass, and root biomass were assessed at 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 WAP. Integrative indices, including nodulation biomass efficiency ratio (NBER), biomass allocation ratio (BAR), and symbiotic advantage index (SAI), were calculated at 10 WAP, and Pearson correlation analysis was performed. Nodulation differed significantly among treatments under both soil conditions (P ≤ 0.001). In heat-treated soil, S. fredii produced 45.33 nodules plant−1 compared with 27.00 nodules plant−1 under B. japonicum, while non-inoculated plants showed limited nodulation (5.00 nodules plant−1), indicating residual indigenous rhizobial influence. Under unsterilized soil, nodulation increased to 74.00 and 46.00 nodules plant−1 under S. fredii and B. japonicum, respectively. S. fredii also produced the highest shoot (5.70 g plant−1) and root biomass (2.70–2.80 g plant−1). Integrative indices significantly differentiated treatment performance, confirming S. fredii as the most effective inoculant and demonstrating the value of combined nodulation-biomass assessment for evaluating rhizobial effectiveness.
Soil nutrient loss occurs naturally through soil erosion, runoff, leaching and burning of crop residues, but this process has accelerated due to improper land and crop management. Minimizing nutrient loss is important for keeping the soil healthy, productive and sustainable for long term sustain crop production and environmental protection. This study was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of soil conservation measures (SCM) in reducing nutrient loss in a mature tea field at Kenilworth Estate, Ginigathhena, Sri Lanka (6° 59ʹ N, 80° 29ʹ E), located at mid-elevation with a slope of 60–72
