Carbon fiber (CF) is renowned for its exceptional mechanical properties; however, its inherent surface inertness and susceptibility to processing damage frequently compromise interfacial adhesion with polymer matrices. Sizing treatment serves as an effective and industrially scalable strategy to overcome this limitation. This review systematically examines the protective and thermodynamic roles of sizing agents, the four fundamental interfacial mechanisms of chemical bonding, mechanical interlocking, physical adsorption, and interphase formation, alongside the specific characterization techniques employed to analyze them. Conventional sizing formulations, encompassing epoxy, acrylic, polyester, polyimide, polyether, and vinyl resin systems, are evaluated with a primary focus on matrix compatibility and inherent performance trade-offs. The discussion subsequently highlights waterborne polyurethane (WPU) as a highly sustainable and structurally versatile sizing platform. We critically assess recent advancements in WPU modification achieved through chemical grafting, supramolecular engineering, bio-based feedstocks, and metal oxide hybridization. While these targeted modifications significantly enhance fiber wettability and interfacial shear strength, they can concurrently introduce challenges related to brittleness, moisture sensitivity, or manufacturing complexity. Drawing from these comparative insights, we outline rational design principles for engineering robust composite interphases. Finally, we explore emerging research directions, emphasizing self-healing functionalities, adaptability to rapid manufacturing processes, and long-term reliability in energy-critical applications such as wind turbine blades and hydrogen storage vessels. Life cycle considerations, particularly the integration of bio-based components and the recyclability of composite are also addressed. Ultimately, this review aims to provide a clear roadmap for the development of next-generation CF sizing agents through advanced interfacial engineering.
Decarbonizing the electricity sector is crucial for achieving the carbon peaking and carbon neutrality goals. Renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar power, can progressively replace fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, etc). While, long-duration energy storage technologies are required to reconcile renewable energy output with electricity demand. Compressed air energy storage (CAES) is an effective solution for this mismatch, thereby enabling a high penetration of renewable energy. As a vital part of CAES, isothermal compressed air energy storage (ICAES) features a high round-trip efficiency (RTE), demonstrating tremendous application prospects in future power systems. This study reviews recent advances in ICAES technology, which primarily includes spray injection technology and liquid piston (LP) technology. The operating principles and system configurations of the ICAES technologies are briefly introduced. Furthermore, a comprehensive review is presented from the perspectives of theoretical research, experimental studies and demonstrations. These isothermal technologies are compared and discussed in terms of technology maturity, power capacity, and round-trip efficiency. Additionally, these studies on key components are reviewed, including isothermal compressors, expanders, and air storage devices. Finally, the research methods for heat transfer characteristics and the heat transfer enhancement mechanisms are discussed. This study provides a comprehensive reference for the optimization of ICAES systems and key components, and proposes suggestions for future research and development to promote commercial application.
The current need to identify energy saving cooling technologies and green technologies in cooling has seen the birth of solid-state cooling as a new and innovative alternative to the conventional vapor-compression cooling. Contrary to conventional systems, solid-state refrigeration uses functional materials which have reversible thermal response to external stimuli, such as electric, magnetic and mechanical fields. This review presents a wide and fundamental materials-based account of major groups of solid-state cooling materials, which include thermoelectric, magnetocaloric, electrocaloric and elastocaloric systems, unified by the underlying thermodynamic and caloric concepts. Specific attention is paid to the explanation of the structure-property-performance relationships that govern such important measures as cooling capacity, entropy change, coefficient of performance and cyclic stability. Nano structuring, band and defect engineering, doping, interface optimization is some of the new material design methods that are surveyed and analyzed systematically as far as they are leading to enhanced thermal and functional performance. It is also indicated that the invention of hybrid and composite materials, and multicaloric coupling techniques is a direction to look at in order to overcome inherent weaknesses of single material systems. Both in parallel, fundamental issues related to thermal hysteresis, mechanical fatigue, reliance on rare-earths, and scale manufacturability are also discussed in some depth, as well as recent developments in devices-level integration and compatibility of systems. This review gives a logical structure of the rational design and implementation of the next-generation solid-state cooling materials by interconnecting basic materials science to engineering concerns. It also defines the key research gaps and sets a direction towards high-efficiency and long-lasting as well as commercially scalable refrigeration methods and positions advanced materials in the forefront of sustainable thermal handling. This review does not simply list thermoelectric and caloric materials but critically considers the current paradoxes that hinder the transfer of laboratory performance to commercially reliable refrigeration systems. The balance between high entropy changes and thermal hysteresis, large temperature lift and cyclic fatigue, high figures of merit at the material level and low figures of merit at the device level, and the absence of a standard durability metric under realistic operating conditions are all given special attention. This important contextualization is employed to pinpoint missing areas of knowledge and to establish material-design priorities for next generation solid-state refrigeration.
High-entropy perovskites (HEPs) have emerged as promising cathode candidates for solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) and protonic ceramic fuel cells (PCFCs) as they combine thermodynamic stabilization through configurational entropy with tunable transport and electrocatalytic properties. However, the vast compositional space renders empirical trial-and-error discovery prohibitively slow. In this perspective, we argue that an integrated computational pipeline, comprising machine-learning interatomic potential (MLIP) coupled with Bayesian optimization for multi-objective compositional search, can significantly accelerate the rational design of SOFC and PCFC cathodes. We describe how MLIPs can be leveraged to obtain defect energetics for HEP cathodes. Then, we outline how Bayesian optimization navigates the resulting high-dimensional property landscape to identify Pareto-optimal compositions balancing key functional properties. Finally, we propose promising research directions for catalyzing rapid and reproducible discovery of cathodes in fuel cells and beyond.
As an emerging approach for biomass energy valorization, solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) technology enables the in-situ conversion of biogas into syngas rich in hydrogen, which can subsequently be converted into high-quality electrical power through electrochemical pathways. However, owing to the diverse sources of biogas, it inevitably contains trace impurities such as sulfides, chlorides, and siloxanes. The fact that SOFCs’ performance and longevity are drastically undermined by these impurities, even at very low concentrations, remains a primary obstacle hindering the widespread development of biogas-fueled SOFC systems. Therefore, elucidating the degradation mechanisms of biogas contaminants and investigating corresponding solutions are prerequisite steps for the successful deployment of biogas SOFCs. In this review, the degradation mechanisms and the corresponding countermeasures of the main impurities (sulfides, chlorides, and siloxanes) on SOFCs are systematically summarized, and the current challenges and future development directions of biogas SOFCs are discussed. In summary, for SOFCs operating on biogas, anode poisoning can be mitigated by upstream gas purification, optimizing operating conditions and cell configuration, modifying the existing anodes, or developing new anode materials.
Vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFBs) are among the most promising technologies for large-scale stationary energy storage because of their scalability, long cycle life, operational safety, flexible design and environmentally friendly operation. However, the sluggish redox kinetics and long-term instability of conventional carbon-based electrodes remain major challenges that limit their commercial deployment. Although many electrode modification strategies have been reported, direct comparison between studies is often difficult due to variations in experimental conditions, operating parameters and electrochemical evaluation methods. In many cases, modified electrodes show excellent catalytic activity in half-cell or three-electrode measurements, but these improvements do not always translate into stable long-term performance in practical full-cell systems. This limitation highlights the urgent need for standardized testing and characterization protocols in VRFB research. Recent advances in electrode engineering, including thermal and microwave treatment, chemical and electrochemical modification, defect engineering, plasma processing, heteroatom doping, incorporation of carbon nanomaterials or metalbased catalysts and ionic liquid-derived carbon materials, have demonstrated strong potential to improve catalytic activity, wettability, conductivity and cycling stability. In addition, advanced in-situ and operando techniques, such as electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), UV-Vis spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, X-ray computed tomography and synchrotron-based characterization, provide deeper understanding of electrode behavior under realistic flow battery operating conditions. This review critically summarizes recent progress in carbon electrode modification strategies, structural and electrochemical characterization methods, operando diagnostic approaches and full-cell evaluation protocols for VRFBs. A novel three-tier standardized reporting framework is proposed to improve reproducibility and enable meaningful comparison across different studies. Emphasis is placed on reporting essential operational parameters, including electrolyte composition, flow rate, current density, compression ratio and state-of-charge range. Establishing standardized testing protocols and advanced operando evaluation methods will support the rational design of durable and high-performance electrodes, thereby accelerating the practical deployment of VRFBs for large-scale renewable energy integration.
Deep-sea mining is increasingly viewed as a potential source of critical metals needed for the global energy transition, including those used in batteries, electric mobility, renewable power systems, and grid infrastructure. The deep-sea mining faces a critical environmental challenge: sediment plumes generated by collector vehicles disturbing the seabed. These plumes, composed of fine-grained deep-sea clays, can persist for extended periods and disperse across vast oceanic areas, posing a threat to benthic ecosystems. Current plume management predominantly adopts a reactive approach, focusing on monitoring and containment rather than addressing the root cause. This paper argues that effective plume control necessitates an understanding and active management of the geotechnical properties of deep-sea sediments. We find that the unique characteristics of deep-sea sediments, including high water content, fine particle size, flocculated microstructure, high surface activity, and the interactions between particles and hydrodynamics, are not only the origin of the plume issue but also the key to its resolution. Targeting three fundamental pathways, namely reducing particle entrainment, limiting transport range, and shortening suspension duration, we propose a comprehensive mitigation framework grounded in geotechnical principles. We conclude that a transition from passive monitoring to proactive particle-level intervention is essential for reducing plume-related environmental risks and for enabling the environmentally and commercially sustainable extraction of energy-critical metals from the deep sea.
Proton exchange membrane (PEM) water electrolysis is a leading platform for sustainable hydrogen production, yet its efficiency is limited by the sluggish and energy-intensive oxygen evolution reaction (OER) under acidic conditions. Replacing the OER with thermodynamically favorable anodic oxidation reactions offers a promising strategy to reduce cell voltage while enabling the co-production of value-added chemicals. Although most hybrid electrolysis systems have been developed in alkaline media, their incompatibility with PEM technology restricts practical implementation. Acidic hybrid water electrolysis (AHWE) provides distinct advantages, including high proton conductivity, reduced ohmic losses, and operation at industrially relevant current densities. However, its development remains in its infancy due to challenges such as catalyst instability, complex proton-coupled electron transfer mechanisms, limited selectivity, and membrane compatibility. This review presents a cross-scale review and perspective on AHWE, linking molecular catalyst design to PEM device integration, and identifies key principles governing the translation of fundamental insights into practical hydrogen production.
Solid oxide electrolysis cells (SOECs) offer a compelling platform for converting renewable electricity and captured CO2 into methane by integrating CO2/H2O co-electrolysis with in-situ methanation. This single-reactor concept promises process intensification, superior heat integration, and compatibility with existing natural gas infrastructure. However, its development is fundamentally constrained by the thermo-kinetic mismatch: efficient co-electrolysis typically requires temperatures above 600°C to minimize ohmic and polarization losses, whereas methanation is thermodynamically favored below 400°C. This review examines recent progress in direct methane synthesis within SOECs from the perspective of mitigating this mismatch systematically. We first clarify the reaction pathways, which including CO2/H2O electroreduction, reverse water-gas shift, methanation, carbon formation, and electrochemical promotion, and discuss the reaction mechanism of the direct methane synthesis within SOECs. Subsequently, we analyze material design strategies with emphasis on multifunctional cathodes, integration of methanation-active catalysts, and the enabling roles of oxygen electrodes and electrolytes in achieving medium-temperature operation. Reactor engineering approaches, ranging from single-temperature-zone to two-temperature-zone and thermally intensified configurations, are then evaluated to illustrate how spatial separation and flow-field regulation can enhance methane selectivity and overall efficiency. Finally, we identify key challenges and future directions in mechanistic understanding, integrated materials design, reactor optimization, and long-term durability. This review highlights that coordinated advances across reaction mechanism, thermo-electrocatalytic materials, and reactor engineering are essential to translate SOEC in-situ methanation from laboratory demonstration into practical power-to-methane applications.
MXenes (Mn+1XnTx) have emerged as highly conductive, surface-tunable 2D materials for electrochemical energy storage and power-system-enabling functions. However, practical deployment is frequently limited by nanosheet restacking, interlayer densification, ion-transport bottlenecks and mechanical deterioration during cycling. Prior reviews, while valuable, are often fragmented, treating synthesis chemistry, electrochemical behavior or composite engineering in isolation. Therefore, they do not clearly explain how structure, interfacial chemistry and architectural hierarchy act together to control rate capability, stability and durability. This review addresses these gaps by integrating MXene synthesis routes and surface termination control with electrode-architecture design in a single, mechanism-driven framework. We consolidate recent progress across batteries and supercapacitors, with particular emphasis on bio-derived hybridization and biomimetic structural concepts (e.g., nacre, wood, and honeycomb-inspired architectures). Our findings demonstrate that these approaches offer practical strategies to suppress restacking, introduce hierarchical porosity, improve electrolyte infiltration and enhance mechanical compliance without sacrificing electrical transport. Furthermore, we address the deficiency of predictive design guidance in the literature by developing a cohesive multiscale modelling framework that connects interfacial energetics, charge and mass transport and stress dissipation, thereby facilitating the rational screening and optimization of next-generation MXene hybrid electrodes. This study links materials chemistry with transport and mechanics, offering practical design concepts for robust, high-rate and scalable MXene-based energy storage systems and associated power system applications.
High-temperature proton-conducting oxides are extremely important materials for next-generation electrochemical energy technologies. Although the hydration chemistry of conventional perovskites has recently been well established, contemporary materials science has revealed proton transport in various non-classical systems, including oxides with cation ordering, coherent intergrowth motifs, and redox-active cations. This review covers newly emerged information and discusses existing data on water uptake across the broad spectrum of complex oxides. The analysis emphasizes the use of thermogravimetry as the principal experimental tool and critically evaluates its methodological nuances that govern measurement accuracy. Common experimental limitations (deviated chemical stoichiometry, surface-limited reactions, and specific instrumental artifacts) have been shown to systematically lead to lower water uptake values than expected. By consolidating these insights, this work provides a rigorous foundation for defect-chemical analysis in terms of proton measurements in diverse oxide compositions. Consequently, this review is an important resource for specialists engaged in the applied development and theoretical modeling of high-temperature proton-conducting oxides and related electrochemical cells.
Carbon neutrality has become an international consensus under the requirements established by the Paris Agreement. Accordingly, countries worldwide, especially developing nations, have formulated their own carbon neutrality policies. Owing to differences in regional development histories and resource endowments, as well as the intermittency of new energy, developing countries will continue to rely on coal to meet their energy demands for sustainable economic and social development in the near future. However, conventional coal-fired power generation technologies can hardly achieve low-carbon or even negative-carbon emissions. It is therefore urgent to develop novel carbon-free coal power technologies. This perspective proposes the concept of Zero-carbon-emission direct coal fuel cells (ZC-DCFC) for power generation as a disruptive technological paradigm for efficient coal utilization. The technological architecture of ZC-DCFC is discussed, including fuel supply, key materials, and in-situ CO2 conversion. The technical challenges and future development directions are also identified. ZC-DCFC is expected to open up a new pathway for near-zero-emission coal utilization, transforming coal from a traditional fossil fuel into a feasible clean energy source in the global low-carbon transition.
Meeting heating and cooling demands represents one of the most universal forms of energy use, with electrically driven vapor-compression heat pumps and chillers-based on the reverse Carnot cycle-being the most widely recognized technology. Although vapor-compression heat pumps/chillers benefit from grid accessibility and mature technology, reducing high-emission fossil fuel use at the user end, overall decarbonization is achieved only when the electricity is generated by renewable energy sources. Moreover, the widespread use of high-global warming potential (GWP) refrigerants exacerbates environmental impacts. Although renewable energy and waste heat can be efficiently converted into useable thermal energy, traditional thermal networks suffer from high thermal loss and limited working radius, hindering long-distance transportation and utilization of such energy sources. This study proposes a novel urban-scale solution-mediated thermal network, which leverages concentration gradients in hygroscopic solutions to enable high-density, low-loss thermal transport with inherent energy storage capabilities. By utilizing absorption-based cycles, the network supports both heating and cooling at end-user sites, significantly improving annual utilization rates. The thermal network is driven by renewable energy and waste heat, combined with zero-GWP refrigerants, which positions it as a transformative solution for decarbonizing urban heating and cooling. This approach not only addresses the limitations of conventional thermal networks but also aligns with the global transition toward sustainable and resilient energy systems. Despite its immense potential, the large-scale deployment of this concept requires overcoming practical challenges related to urban infrastructure integration, high-vacuum maintenance, working fluid crystallization, and initial material costs.
Noble-metal-free catalysts are emerging as cost-effective, durable, and scalable alternatives to platinum-group metals (PGMs). This review surveys advances across four domains: computation, production, storage, and conversion. Computational methods, including density functional theory and machine learning, accelerate discovery by predicting adsorption energetics, identifying active sites, and guiding operando characterization. In hydrogen production, carbon materials, transition-metal oxides, phosphides, and single-atom frameworks enable efficient thermocatalytic, electrocatalytic, and photocatalytic processes, narrowing the gap with PGMs. In hydrogen storage, porous adsorbents, solid-state hydrides, and liquid organic hydrogen carriers are re-engineered with earth-abundant catalysts to improve kinetics, reversibility, and durability. In hydrogen conversion, heteroatom-doped carbons, transition-metal alloys, and M–N–C single-atom catalysts show competitive activity for the oxygen reduction and hydrogen oxidation reactions. Hybrid systems that combine trace PGMs with non-precious elements offer pragmatic pathways to commercialization. By integrating theoretical insight with experimental validation, these studies establish design principles that link electronic structure, microstructure, and performance. The target audience includes researchers and practitioners in catalysis, materials science, and energy engineering. This review provides a framework for translating noble-metal-free catalysts into scalable hydrogen technologies and reinforces hydrogen's role as a cornerstone of the global energy transition.
Reversible solid oxide cells (RSOCs) are an energy conversion technology capable of efficiently and flexibly converting electrical energy into chemical energy and vice versa, holding significant application potential in establishing a carbon-neutral energy system dominated by renewable energy. This article systematically reviews recent research progress on electrode materials in oxide-ion conducting RSOCs (O-RSOCs) and proton-conducting RSOCs (P-RSOCs), with a focused discussion on both fuel and oxygen electrode materials. Regarding fuel electrodes, it elaborates on the structural characteristics and performance advantages of nickel-based, copper-based, and perovskite oxide materials, while also addressing their challenges and improvement strategies concerning issues such as carbon deposition and sulfur poisoning. For the oxygen electrode, the progress on single perovskite, double perovskite, and Ruddlesden-Popper (RP) perovskite materials in O-RSOCs or P-RSOCs is critically assessed. To achieve both efficient oxygen reduction/evolution reactions (ORR/OER) and long-term operational stability, systematic optimization of perovskite electrodes is essential. Furthermore, the advantages and development potential of symmetric electrode materials are explored. Finally, future research directions for electrode materials of RSOCs are outlined, including intelligent materials design and microstructural control, in-depth investigation of degradation mechanisms, and deeper integration with renewable energy systems. This review aims to provide insights for advancing the practical application and industrial development of RSOCs technology.
Electrocatalysts are pivotal to renewable energy conversion and sustainable chemical synthesis, yet conventional noble metal catalysts suffer from scarcity and high cost, while transition metal catalysts are plagued by the Fenton effect, which degrades electrode structures, reduces reaction selectivity, and poses safety risks. To address these bottlenecks, main-group element-based electrocatalysts have emerged as promising alternatives, leveraging their high terrestrial abundance, tunable s/p orbital characteristics, and radical resistance. This review systematically summarizes the synthesis strategies, catalytic mechanisms, and performance breakthroughs of main-group metal electrocatalysts. Key synthesis methods including pyrolysis, aerogel, hydrothermal, template, combinatorial magnetron co-sputtering, and chemical vapor carbonization enable precise regulation of atomic dispersion and nanostructure, with pyrolysis and template methods achieving 3–5 times higher specific surface area via Al-N4 and Mg-N2 coordination without harsh acid etching. In terms of catalytic performance, main-group metal catalysts exhibit remarkable activity. Mechanistically, p-band center regulation optimizes intermediate adsorption energy, while s-block metals (Mg, Ca) inhibit ·OH formation via stable valence states and s-orbital properties, improving alkaline stability. Furthermore, integrating in-situ characterization with machine learning accelerates the shift from “trial-and-error" to rational design. Despite challenges in acidic stability, reaction selectivity regulation, and large-scale preparation cost, main-group metal electrocatalysts offer innovative solutions for advancing electrocatalytic systems, with promising extensions to CO2 reduction and nitrogen fixation. This review provides critical insights into the design and development of high-performance, cost-effective electrocatalysts for sustainable energy applications.
Phosphate-based cathode materials for sodium-ion batteries exhibit considerable potential for widespread application owing to their cost-effectiveness, excellent structural stability, and high safety profile. Nonetheless, their intrinsic low electronic conductivity and sluggish ion diffusion kinetics significantly limit their electrochemical performance. High-entropy doping engineering presents a promising approach to overcoming these limitations by leveraging multi-component synergistic effects. However, investigations into composition screening, structural design, and mechanism optimization remain at an early stage. This review elucidates the fundamental principles of the high-entropy concept and examines the selection criteria for multi-component doping elements appropriate for phosphate-based cathode materials. Additionally, from the perspectives of material structure and kinetics, it emphasizes the substantial impact and potential mechanisms by which high-entropy doping enhances the performance of phosphate-based cathode materials. These mechanisms include reinforcing crystal structural stability, optimizing electrode-electrolyte interface compatibility, effectively suppressing the formation of electrochemically inactive impurity phases, markedly improving redox reaction kinetics, and significantly enhancing ion diffusion capacity and electronic conductivity. Furthermore, addressing current critical technological challenges and proposes future research directions and development objectives aimed at facilitating the large-scale application of high-entropy-doped phosphate-based cathode materials.
Green hydrogen is widely regarded as pivotal for achieving net-zero emissions, driving intensive development of solid oxide cells (SOCs) due to their high efficiency, reversible operation between electrolysis and fuel cell modes, and reactant flexibility. To meet practical power requirements, multiple cells are connected in series to form stacks, interwoven with interconnect plates (IPs). IPs serve three critical functions: maintaining structural integrity, ensuring electrical connectivity between cells, and optimizing gas distribution and current collection. However, IPs face significant degradation challenges from extreme SOC operating conditions, including elevated temperatures (650–850 °C) and simultaneous exposure to reducing/oxidizing atmospheres, which compromise long-term performance and stability. This review first examines the key degradation mechanisms affecting IPs. Then it describes main degradation mitigation strategies, highlighting recent advances in i) optimized geometrical designs (aimed at maximizing cell performance and mitigating hotspots), and ii) innovative materials and protective coatings, which must satisfy stringent requirements for economic viability, thermal stability, mechanical robustness, and chemical resistance. All in all, these insights provide actionable pathways to enhance stack durability and operational efficiency.
Protonic ceramic energy devices represent a promising frontier for sustainable energy conversion and storage, operating efficiently at intermediate temperatures (350–650 °C) and facilitating integration with renewable energy sources. Among protonic ceramic materials, yttrium-doped barium zirconate (BaZr1-xYxO3-δ, BZY) stands out for its competitive proton conductivity, chemical resilience, and compatibility with diverse fuels and environments. This review critically examines the fundamentals and multiscale design strategies for BZY-based ceramic cells. We discuss atomic-level composition-structure relationships, innovative synthesis routes, and advanced processing methods to overcome manufacturing and scalability challenges. We then highlight microstructure engineering and interface design approaches that minimize resistance and elevate device performance, supported by state-of-the-art characterization and predictive modeling techniques, including density functional theory and machine learning. Recent advances, such as hybrid architectures and AI-driven defect optimization, demonstrate significant improvements in conductivity, stability, and Faradaic efficiency, confirming BZY's pivotal role in green hydrogen production and power-to-chemicals applications. By integrating insights across materials chemistry, electrochemistry, and engineering, this review provides a comprehensive roadmap for researchers aiming to translate laboratory breakthroughs into robust, scalable protonic ceramic technologies for decarbonized energy systems.
Solid oxide cells (SOCs) are pivotal for renewable energy storage and conversion. They operate in two key modes: solid oxide electrolysis cells (SOECs) efficiently transform electrical power into fuel, while solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) convert fuel back into power. Conventional SOC fabrication relies on high-temperature sintering, leading to microstructured components that limit performance at reduced operating temperatures. Nanostructured electrodes and electrolytes are essential to enhance electrochemical activity (e.g., oxygen reduction and hydrogen evolution reactions) and ion transport rates at low temperatures, thereby addressing challenges such as material degradation and sealing reliability under high-temperature operation. This review systematically examines advanced nanofabrication techniques for SOCs, including infiltration, exsolution, electrospinning, template-assisted synthesis, selfassembly, vapor deposition, high-pressure compaction, and sintering-free direct assembly. For each method, we analyze the process-microstructure-performance relationships, alongside comparative assessments of cost, scalability, complexity, and technological maturity. Furthermore, we critically evaluate the current limitations and future prospects of SOC nanofabrication, providing insights for next-generation energy technologies.
