Soil salinization imposes notable limitations on plant growth and land use. Nanotechnology is a promising strategy to mitigate salt stress. Studies on nanoparticle-regulated salt tolerance have rarely focused on Tamarix chinensis (T. chinensis), a halophyte adapted to moderate to severe saline-alkali soil. This study used a multimodal approach encompassing physiology, ultrastructure observation, ion detection, transcriptome sequencing, and phytohormone quantification to clarify the effect and underlying mechanisms of cerium dioxide nanoparticles (CeO2 NPs) on the mitigation of salt stress in T. chinensis. The results revealed that CeO2 NPs markedly restored biomass (90.9%), chlorophyll content (28.0%), and root development (110-120%) of T. chinensis under salt stress, and reduced cellular ultrastructural damage. Higher total cerium was detected in roots than in leaves, and salt stress increased tissue total cerium levels. It was found to regulate ion homeostasis by lowering the Na+/K+ ratio and enhancing the accumulation of soluble sugars. Moreover, CeO2 NPs have been indicated to scavenge excessive ROS by lowering hydrogen peroxide and MDA levels and boosting POD/SOD activities by roughly 2.6-3.5 fold, which was associated with enhanced plant antioxidant capacity and lowered levels of reactive oxygen species derived oxidative damage. Transcriptome analysis identified differentially expressed genes enriched in phenylpropanoid biosynthesis, flavonoid biosynthesis, and plant hormone signal transduction pathways. CeO2 NPs have been demonstrated to modulate the levels of the phytohormones abscisic acid (ABA), jasmonic acid (JA), and salicylic acid (SA), with a concurrent decrease in ABA (80%) and JA (48%), and an increase in SA (159%). These effects have been indicated to reverse the aberrant expression of important genes within the three pathways mentioned above under salt stress conditions. In conclusion, CeO2 NPs mediated salt stress mitigation in T. chinensis may be associated with enhanced antioxidant defense systems, alterations in phenylpropanoid flavonoid biosynthesis, and shifts in phytohormone homeostasis and signal transduction. This study offers a theoretical justification for using a nanotechnology-based strategy in halophyte cultivation for saline land development.
Growing environmental and ecological concerns about the intensive use of synthetic pesticides have accelerated the development of sustainable crop protection methods. Botanical pesticides are viewed as promising options due to their biodegradability, multi-target modes of action, and generally positive environmental impact. Still, their wider use in agriculture is limited by inherent physicochemical challenges, including photodegradation, oxidation, volatility, poor water solubility, low bioavailability, and fleeting residual activity under field conditions. Recent nanotechnology innovations offer new possibilities for addressing these issues by enabling the creation of nanoengineered botanical pesticide systems. Unlike antimicrobial nanoparticles that rely on nanoparticle toxicity for activity, these nanoformulations use nanocarriers as delivery platforms to improve stability, transport, release, and accessibility of plant-based bioactive compounds at target sites.This review critically explores the development of botanical pesticides, tracing their progression from traditional plant extracts to sophisticated nano-enabled crop protection systems. It emphasizes the mechanistic aspects of nano-engineered formulations, such as nanoencapsulation, physicochemical defense against environmental stresses, controlled-release behaviour, enhanced interaction with targets, and improved biological activity. The roles of polymeric nanoparticles, lipid carriers, chitosan nanoparticles, protein nanocarriers, and nanoemulsion systems are compared in terms of formulation stability, release profiles, and pesticidal effectiveness. Data from laboratory, greenhouse, and field studies are integrated to evaluate the practical application of nano-enhanced botanical formulations for controlling insect pests, phytopathogenic fungi, bacteria, and nematodes.This review also explores crucial translational issues such as the standardization of formulations, manufacturing scale-up, environmental safety evaluation, and regulatory challenges. By clearly differentiating nano-engineered botanical delivery systems from innate antimicrobial nanomaterials and including mechanistic, translational, and sustainability viewpoints, it offers a comprehensive framework for the future of nano-enabled botanical pesticides in sustainable farming. The integration of plant-based bioactives with cutting-edge nanocarrier technologies presents a promising route to decrease reliance on synthetic pesticides, while enhancing efficacy, environmental safety, and long-term agricultural resilience.
Micro- and nanoplastics (M/NPs) are accumulating in agricultural environments, raising concerns about crop performance, food quality, and dietary exposure. Building on earlier reviews of environmental occurrence, plant uptake, and phytotoxicity, this review critically evaluates evidence relevant to the environment-plant-food-human continuum and organizes it around exposure determinants, plant response pathways, and potential intervention points. We first examine how particle size, surface charge, polymer type, exposure route, and plant traits influence M/NP bioavailability, root and foliar uptake, and vascular transport. We then relate these processes to changes in seed germination, growth, photosynthesis, crop quality, and rhizosphere microbiota, and summarize the associated responses involving redox homeostasis, phenylpropanoid and cell-wall metabolism, carbohydrate and energy metabolism, hormone signaling, amino acid metabolism, nutrient homeostasis, and genomic integrity. Evidence for M/NP occurrence in edible tissues and trophic transfer is critically assessed; however, quantitative measurements of internal polymer burdens and plant-derived dietary exposure remain scarce, and adverse human-health implications are inferred mainly from cell and animal studies. Finally, mitigation approaches are evaluated at two levels: reducing plant exposure through rhizosphere management, soil amendments, nutrient regulation, agricultural source control, and ecological interception; and reducing household exposure through changes in drinking water, food preparation, textiles, and dietary practices. The available evidence remains constrained by non-standardized detection methods, simplified model particles, high exposure concentrations, and limited field and human validation. Future work should prioritize standardized measurements, environmentally realistic chronic exposures, and causal evaluation of transfer and mitigation across the plant-food-human pathway.
Alternaria leaf spot disease is a major constraint in mustard cultivation, causing substantial reductions in crop yield. To control Alternaria leaf spot caused by Alternaria brassicicola, novel silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) and copper nanoparticles (CuNPs) were synthesized using nontoxic, biodegradable guava leaf extracts, which serve as both capping/stabilizing and reducing agent. The green-synthesized CuNPs and AgNPs were characterized and confirmed using ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy, fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction. Six concentrations of AgNPs (10, 25, 50, 100, 500, and 1000mg/L) and four concentrations of CuNPs (20, 40, 80, and 100mg/L) were applied as seed priming treatments. The experiments were arranged in a randomized complete block design with three replications. The in vitro assays assessed antifungal activity against A. brassicicola, while in vivo seed-priming experiments evaluated growth promotion and phytotoxic thresholds. The in vitro study showed that AgNPs (1,000mg/L) and CuNPs (100mg/L) exhibited significantly higher pathogen-inhibitory activity (99.71% and 95.76%) and induced greater oxidative stress compared with the control group. However, considering plant-nanoparticle interactions, the optimum concentrations of AgNPs and CuNPs were 100mg/L AgNPs and 40mg/L CuNPs, which significantly inhibited the growth of A. brassicicola (97.11% and 88.90%). Microscopic observations and biochemical assays confirmed fungal inhibition, as evidenced by hyphal deformation, reduced conidia production, and elevated oxidative stress relative to the control. An in vivo study revealed that AgNPs at 100mg/L and CuNPs at 40mg/L exhibited the most pronounced nonphytotoxic effects, significantly improving germination percentage (by 49.51% and 54.66%) compared with the untreated control. Moreover, seed priming with 100mg/L AgNPs and 40mg/L CuNPs markedly increased shoot length (37.93% and 35.34%), root length (105% and 40%), dry weight (67.80% and 59.15%), total chlorophyll content (93.81% and 81.45%), protein content (28.46% and 36.15%), and total soluble sugar (18.40% and 9.91%) relative to the control. Furthermore, seed priming with 100mg/L AgNPs and 40mg/L CuNPs was identified as the optimal treatment, effectively modulating reactive oxygen species (hydrogen peroxide and malondialdehyde) while enhancing antioxidant enzyme activities (ascorbate peroxidase, peroxidase, catalase, and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging capacity). These findings suggest that seed priming with CuNPs and AgNPs provides a promising strategy for managing Alternaria leaf spot in mustard while promoting healthy seedling growth.
Attempts were made in the present investigation to isolate nano-vesicles from Aloe vera (ADNV) using mesh filtration (80 µm), membrane filtration (100 kDa), ultracentrifugation, gradient separation, and their combinations. The isolated ADNVs were evaluated for particle size distribution, zeta potential, anti-oxidant activity, and microstructure. An isolation technique comprising membrane filtration and high-speed centrifugation at 2250 g for 30 min was found to be most suitable for ADNV extraction. Isolated ADNV were subjected to varying environmental stress conditions viz., thermal stress (4°C/30 min; 37°C/30 min; pasteurization treatment of 72°C/1 min; boiling treatment of 96°C/10 min; and 121°C/15 min) and pH changes (1.5, 7, and 8) to evaluate their stability. Particle size of ADNV increased significantly (p < 0.05) with an increase in the heat treatment, and the polydispersity index (PDI) value reached 0.92 and 1.00 after boiling and sterilization treatments, respectively. On the other hand, particle size and PDI values decreased for the samples adjusted to pH of 1.5 and 8. The highest zeta potential (-17.03 mV) of ADNV was obtained at pH 1.5. Antioxidant activity of all the ADNV samples decreased significantly (p < 0.05) with an increase in the heat treatment and at higher pH (7 & 8). The FESEM images revealed that the structural integrity of ADNV was intact thus they can withstand the applied environmental stress conditions.
Hypothesised that carbon dots (C-dot) assist in quenching of reactive oxygen species, which is generated during soil salinity stress under paddy cultivation. Such a physiological process helps the plants to mitigate salinity stress at active tillering and reproductive phases and improve productivity. Leguminous Root nodule-derived C-Dot (LCD) was synthesized using the hydrothermal method. The size of the LCD is in the range of 4–7 nm as measured using TEM. The XRD spectra suggest the amorphous nature of the LCD. It possesses surface-available nitrogen- and oxygen-containing functional groups (FT-IR) that promote strong UV absorption (300 nm) and produce bright, strong blue fluorescence. Paddy was cultivated under three salinity conditions (0, 50 and 100 mM NaCl), and the LCD (10 ppm) was sprayed at active tillering (20–25 DAT) and pre-flowering stages (50–55 DAT). Proline accumulation was also moderated, suggesting improved ionic homeostasis and reduced stress severity. The LCD applied paddy plants subjected to 50 mM NaCl salinity regime had recorded significantly higher numbers of tillers, number of panicles per tiller, panicle length and number of grains per panicle. The same treatment had retained higher chlorophyll content, photosynthetic activity, stomatal conductance, and Relative water content. These plant responses reflect improved osmotic balance and reduced oxidative damage. This was confirmed by biochemical assays, which showed less lipid peroxidation (MDA levels) and modulated proline accumulation, indicating that LCDs enhanced cell protection. The enhanced uptake of nutrients and improved plant biomass ultimately increased grain yield under moderate levels of salinity (50 mM NaCl) + LCD treatment. Grain yield (6485 kg ha⁻¹) was recorded as an increase over saline control and surpassed even the unstressed condition. Collectively, these results demonstrate that LCDs function as an active nano-bio stimulant to enhance the tolerance of Paddy to salinity and improve the productivity of paddy grown in saline soils.
Nanoparticle (NP)-based agrochemicals are increasingly explored as sustainable alternatives to conventional pesticides, yet their effects on piercing–sucking pests and the underlying plant-mediated mechanisms remain poorly understood. We examined how foliar application of four elemental NPs—silicon dioxide (SiO₂)NPs, selenium (Se)NPs, iron oxide (Fe₂O₃)NPs, and zinc oxide (ZnO)NPs—influences citrus leaf and petiole traits and the population dynamics, settlement behavior, and body size of the arrowhead scale Unaspis yanonensis on satsuma mandarin Citrus unshiu. After nymphal settlement, leaves were treated once with NPs or distilled water, and scale populations and leaf areas were monitored for six weeks under greenhouse conditions. All NP treatments reduced weekly population-density change in nymphal and adult stages, with ZnONPs and SiO₂NPs showing the strongest suppression of adults. SeNPs, Fe₂O₃NPs, and ZnONPs promoted leaf growth only under scale infestation. In bifoliate choice assays, first-instar nymphs showed the previously reported preference for SiO₂NP-treated leaves and avoidance of SeNP-treated leaves. NP treatments also modified leaf and petiole toughness and tissue-specific elemental composition. SiO₂NPs increased leaf and petiole toughness in association with elevated adaxial epidermal Si and Ca. ZnONP treatment reduced adult scale size. Across treatments, tougher tissues were generally associated with reduced adult body size. These results suggest that elemental NPs can suppress arrowhead scale populations through direct and/or plant-mediated effects involving changes in citrus tissue structure and elemental allocation. ZnONPs appear particularly promising as pest-suppressive materials that may also enhance leaf growth under infestation.
Plant nanotechnology has emerged as a powerful tool for plant gene delivery and agricultural production, but it also faces bottlenecks such as long development cycles of materials and uncertain biological compatibility. With the rapid advances in machine learning and dynamic modeling, artificial intelligence (AI) is reshaping diverse scientific disciplines and recent studies suggest that AI has the potential to further optimize nanomaterials design and application. Here, we discuss how AI-assisted strategies facilitate intelligent nanocarriers design, customized nanofertilizers and pesticide delivery, as well as advanced nanosensing platforms for precision agriculture, while also introducing AI-assisted design and optimization of nanopesticides and nanofertilizers for plant health and microbiome management, and highlighting key challenges such as limited data availability, model interpretability, and transferability to field conditions. We further outline future directions for the development of AI-powered plant nanotechnology for sustainable agriculture.
Nanotechnology enables precise delivery, controlled release, and real-time tracking of bioactive compounds in plant systems, offering powerful opportunities for sustainable crop improvement and advanced plant biotechnology. Cellular internalization of nanomaterials (NMs) in plants may occur via transient pore formation, carrier-mediated transport, or interactions with membrane proteins such as aquaporins and ion channels. Growing evidence indicates that endocytosis-like mechanisms are key contributors to NM uptake in plant cells. In this review, we collect and critically discuss the role of endocytic pathways in NM uptake by plant cells, in addition to identifying knowledge gaps and future research directions. Many studies show that clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME) plays a major role in NM internalization, however, clathrin-independent pathways may also contribute depending on the plant–NM system. Uptake efficiency is influenced by NM properties, including size, charge, and surface functionalization, as well as plant-specific factors such as cell wall architecture and endocytic capacity. Redox signaling mediated by nitric oxide and reactive oxygen species regulates endocytic machinery, thereby shaping NM uptake efficiency. Conversely, NMs can modify cellular redox homeostasis, creating bidirectional feedback that determines their intracellular fate. Endocytic NM uptake intersects with nutrient transport and stress-signaling networks, enabling NMs to modulate antioxidant defenses, hormone signaling, and root developmental plasticity, while potentially competing with micronutrient transporters. This perspective suggests that endocytosis functions as a regulated interface between NMs and plant cells, where nanoparticle properties and cellular redox processes together shape their uptake, trafficking, and biological effects.
In this study, we present a green and scalable hydrothermal strategy for synthesizing multifunctional carbon dots (CDs) from the edible marine alga Hizikia fusiformis. The resulting hijiki-derived CDs (H-CDs) exhibit well-defined optical and structural properties, including strong blue emission (λₑₘ ≈ 407 nm), a quantum yield of 8.7%, an extended fluorescence lifetime (15.8 ns), ultrasmall size, and abundant surface functionalization. These features confer high aqueous stability and compatibility with biological environments. Biological evaluation demonstrates that H-CDs are cytocompatible and efficiently internalized by HeLa cells, producing stable intracellular fluorescence suitable for bioimaging. In addition, H-CDs exhibit strong inhibitory activity against sphingomyelin synthase isoforms (SMS1 and SMS2), with inhibition levels comparable to those of established inhibitors. A plausible interaction mechanism involving multivalent surface interactions, including electrostatic binding and substrate mimicry, is proposed to explain this activity. In plant systems, H-CDs significantly enhance rice (Oryza sativa) seed germination and early seedling development, as reflected by increased root and shoot growth. Confocal imaging confirms their uptake and localization within metabolically active seed tissues, particularly in the bran and aleurone layers. At the molecular level, selective upregulation of OsDGAT1 suggests stimulation of lipid biosynthesis pathways associated with early-stage energy metabolism, while unchanged OsACBP4 expression indicates limited impact on lipid transport. Our work advances plant nanobiology by showing that biomass-derived carbon dots interact with plants at physiological and molecular levels, linking uptake to metabolic regulation and growth, and enabling sustainable platforms for bioimaging, metabolic control, and agriculture.
Matricaria chamomilla L. (Asteraceae) is a high-value aromatic herb, due to its inherent functional properties and aromatic flavour. In recent years, the demand for chamomile flowers has increased tremendously due to their wide application in the food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries, leading to intentional and unintentional adulteration of the raw herb. Thus, the market faces a substantial gap between demand and supply. The present study aimed to investigate the effects of iron sulfate (Fe), chitosan (CH), and chitosan-enriched iron oxide nanoparticles (NP) at various concentrations (50, 100, 250, and 500 ppm) on the floral productivity, agro-morphological, physiological, and biochemical traits of M. chamomilla L. Further, chitosan-enriched iron nanoparticles (NP) were prepared by co-precipitation method and characterized by TEM, FTIR, XRD, and XPS. The results showed significant variation among treatments for growth, floral yield, pigment, and antioxidant metabolites. Among all treatments, applications of nanoparticle, at NP-250 and NP-500, exhibited superior enhancement in biomass accumulation, flower yield, chlorophyll content, flavonoids, phenolics, and antioxidant enzyme activities, including SOD, catalase, and peroxidase. In contrast, control and lower-dose treatments showed comparatively reduced metabolic and growth responses. The findings suggest that NPs serve as an efficient plant growth promoter and bio-stimulant for the sustainable cultivation of chamomile, with improved floral productivity compared to individual iron sulfate and chitosan salts. This study highlights the potential of chitosan-enriched iron oxide nanoparticles (NP) as a sustainable alternative to chemical fertilizers to boost plant growth and floral productivity in medicinal and aromatic plants, thereby enhancing agricultural sustainability and crop production.
Gray mold is a fungal disease that affects many crops, including tomatoes, and causes massive economic losses worldwide. A novel control system is urgently needed because of the fungus's high genetic variability and resistance to multiple fungicides. Spray-induced gene silencing is an effective way to control plant pests by triggering RNA interference (RNAi) and blocking key genes in them. However, directly silencing susceptibility genes in plants to control disease remains to be studied. This approach could be a more efficient way to induce RNAi than targeting the pest's genes. Here, three disease susceptibility genes of tomato were efficiently targeted by RNA based nano fungicides coupled with double-stranded RNA-carbon quantum dots (dsRNA-CDs). The novel RNA based nano fungicides offered an excellent effect on dsRNA preservation and cellular delivery, also facilitated the production of jasmonic acid in plants, which enabled these fungicides with good inhibitory effects on gray mold, indicating that they could be a promising way to control this notorious disease. Moreover, the fungicides specifically silenced the target genes and had no side effects on plants. Therefore, the novel RNA based nano fungicides could be efficient tools to control gray mold in tomatoes, and the plant susceptibility gene-based system is a potential way to control various plant diseases.
Heavy metal (HM) stress causes severe physiological damage in plants, limiting their potential for phytoremediation. This study investigated the ability of green-synthesized graphene oxide nanoparticles (GONPs) to mitigate chromium (Cr) and lead (Pb) stress in the succulent Crassula ovata. GONPs were sustainably produced from banana peel waste and characterized using FT-IR, SEM, and EDX. Plants were cultivated for 60 days in contaminated urban soil, with GONPs applied at 100 and 150 mg L⁻¹ via soil and foliar routes. Soil application at 150 mg L⁻¹ most effectively alleviated metal toxicity, significantly increasing plant biomass and promoting substantial recovery of chlorophyll content relative to unstressed controls. This recovery was associated with a marked reduction in oxidative stress, with malondialdehyde (MDA) content decreasing by 22.2% and CaCl₂-extractable Cr and Pb fractions declining by 68.2% and 71.5%, respectively, under soil-applied GONPs. Anatomical analysis showed that GONPs restored tissue compactness and cellular integrity in roots and shoots, which were compromised by metal stress. Furthermore, GONPs amendment enhanced the root sequestration of Cr and Pb while reducing their translocation to shoots, confirming a phytostabilization mechanism. This was supported by a sharp decline (over 70%) in the bioavailable metal fractions in the soil. These findings demonstrate a circular-economy-based phytostabilization strategy, where green-synthesized GONPs simultaneously reduce metal toxicity and enhance plant resilience, offering a sustainable solution for rehabilitating contaminated urban soils using a non-food ornamental plant.
Current hot environmental conditions intensely frontier growth and efficiency of leafy vegetables. Investigating the environmental factors such as receptive biochemical and morpho-physiological mechanisms might be an imperative implement for thermo-tolerance of crops. Keeping in mind these facts, the current research had been conducted to evaluate changes in plant growth, as well as antioxidant enzyme modulation in spinach (Spinacea oleracea L.) under heat associated condition. A green method produced ZnO@ZnS binary nanocomposite had been employed to resolve these issues. Physio-chemical investigations have been done using advanced techniques to confirm the formation of crystalline phase of nanostrucures within a mesoporous composite architecture with average particle sizes. The average size of ZnO, ZnS and ZnO@ZnS lies in the range of 16–18, 3–5 and 18–23 nm, respectively. Pore volumes (Vp) of ZnO, ZnS and ZnO@ZnS have been calculated as 1.9, 12.2 and 0.1 cm3g−1, respectively. Under heat stress, activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), ascorbate peroxidase (POD), and guaiacol peroxidase (GPX) significantly increased in spinach leaves. In investigation, it has been recorded that ZnO@ZnS treated Spinacia oleracea showed a significant increase (p < 0.05) in antioxidant enzymes, such as SOD, CAT, POD, and GPX and a higher redox regulatory capacity. Additionally, biological evaluation showed concentration dependent antibacterial property against Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas and E. coli with efficient minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of ZnO@ZnS which is better than that of ZnO NPs. The antibacterial efficacy and the antioxidant enzyme modulation were measured as an independent biological response. The enhanced performance of the composite is explained by the effect of the modified surface characteristics and the combined physicochemical properties of ZnO and ZnS. These results form the basis for the wide application of green-fabricated ZnO@ZnS nanocomposites as multifunctional platforms for sustainable agricultural and antimicrobial purposes.
Soil salinization severely restricts plant growth and threatens food safety. Silicon nanoparticles (SiNPs) can alleviate salt stresses, while the mechanisms remain unclear. Aiming for targeted application of SiNPs under soil salinization, silicate (Si) was selected as reference Si source, and the effects of Si and SiNPs on plant growth, photosynthetic performance, antioxidant performance, and ionic homeostasis in cucumber under salt stress were comprehensively investigated with the usage of principal component analysis (PCA) and transcriptome sequencing. In general, salt stress induced significant growth inhibition in cucumber, with decreased biomass and root morphological parameters, while both Si and SiNPs alleviated growth inhibition in cucumber. In addition, Si and SiNPs application at high concentration more effectively enhanced Na/K homeostasis, and low concentration application of Si and SiNPs induced a more significant regulation on antioxidant enzyme activities. In addition, SiNPs induced a more extensive regulation on gene expression network than Si in response to salt stress in cucumber, which was supported by the results of enrichment analysis. Moreover, correlation analysis between key modules of weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) and physiological traits implied that genes related to chloroplast functions, redox balance, and membrane transport processes could be the key targets of SiNPs. Overall, the results showed that Si and SiNPs promoted salt stress resistance in cucumber with a dose-dependent pattern. SiNPs application more effectively promoted cucumber biomass and regulated gene expression network than silicate under salt stress, while several key target genes of SiNPs in modulating salt stress in cucumber were also identified. The results would provide a basis of targeted application of SiNPs under soil salinization.
Soil salinity is a major abiotic stress that severely limits plant growth and productivity by inducing osmotic stress, oxidative damage, and ionic imbalances. The present study evaluated the potential of melatonin-mediated silver nanoparticles (Mel AgNPs) to enhance salinity stress tolerance in Brassica juncea. Pot experiments were conducted using 21-day-old plants exposed to salinity stress and treated with Mel AgNPs at different concentrations (50 and 100 mg L-1) through both root application and foliar spray. Morphological, physiological, and biochemical responses were assessed 48 h after nanoparticle exposure. Salinity stress markedly increased lipid peroxidation and hydrogen peroxide accumulation while suppressing antioxidant defence. In contrast, Mel AgNPs treatment significantly reduced malondialdehyde and H2O2 levels and enhanced the activities of key antioxidant enzymes, indicating effective mitigation of oxidative stress. Improved morpho-physiological performance further confirmed the protective role of Mel AgNPs under saline conditions. Overall, the findings demonstrate that Mel AgNP can effectively enhance salinity tolerance in B. juncea by strengthening antioxidant defence mechanisms and reducing stress-induced cellular damage, highlighting their potential as a sustainable strategy for improving crop resilience under saline environments.
