The aim of this study was to develop edible films using kidney bean native and nano starch, incorporating lemongrass essential oil (LEO). In this study, starch was extracted from kidney beans and reduced to the nano-scale, further incorporated with LEO to develop active food packaging films. Nano starch from kidney bean exhibited markedly higher ash content (0.97%), water absorption capacity (53.76%), and oil absorption capacity (39.23%) compared to native starch (0.11%, 2.34%, and 25.34%, respectively). Films prepared with nano-starch showed significantly higher water solubility (62.4%) and biodegradability (15.05%) than native starch films (21.1% and 6.76%, respectively), while LEO addition reduced moisture content (from 11.88% to 8.31%) and biodegradability (3.91%). Structural improvements by nano starch enhanced barrier properties, whereas LEO imparted antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. LEO acted as a natural preservative, helping to inhibit microbial growth. The developed films were further applied for packaging of grapes, where they effectively reduced microbial spoilage and maintained fruit firmness and appearance during storage. Overall, kidney bean starch–based films demonstrated strong potential as eco-friendly, active packaging materials, contributing valuable insights into legume starch utilization in sustainable food packaging.
Pigmented rice contains bioactive compounds with potential applications in functional foods. This study evaluated the prebiotic potential and α-glucosidase inhibitory activity of Riceberry rice (RR) and black glutinous rice (BR) compared with white Hom Mali rice (WR). Rice samples were hydrolyzed with α-amylase at 50°C for 8 h and fractionated into three molecular weight ranges (<3 kDa, 3–10 kDa, and >10 kDa). The hydrolysates were assessed for their ability to promote the growth of four probiotic strains, namely Lactiplantibacillus plantarum TISTR 877 (LP877), L. plantarum TISTR 926 (LP926), Lacticaseibacillus casei TISTR 1463 (LC1463), and Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus TISTR 2443 (LR2443), as well as for α-glucosidase inhibitory activity. RR and BR exhibited lower hydrolysis percentages than WR but generated higher concentrations of reducing sugars. Glucose, maltose, and maltooligosaccharides were detected in all hydrolysates. All hydrolysates supported probiotic growth, with BR showing significantly greater growth-promoting effects than RR and WR. The >10 kDa fraction of BR exhibited the highest prebiotic activity toward LP877 and LR2443. In contrast, the 3–10 kDa fraction (1.5 mg/mL) showed the strongest α-glucosidase inhibition (42.99±2.33%). These findings demonstrate a molecular weight-dependent dual functionality of BR hydrolysates and highlight their potential as functional ingredients for prebiotic and glycemic management-oriented food products.
Micro-Nanobubbles (MNBs) represent a unique class of gas-liquid dispersions possessing distinct physicochemical behaviors compared to conventional bubbles. Their utility is driven by a high specific surface area, high internal gas pressure, prolonged stability, and a negative zeta potential, which governs unique interfacial phenomena. In this study, a comprehensive synthesis of MNB applications in food, beverage, and water processing is presented, with a focus on process intensification and sustainability. The extraction of bioactive compounds (e.g., polyphenols, flavonoids, and terpenes) is enhanced by MNBs through facilitated solvent diffusion and improved mass transfer. In MNB-assisted separation processes, foam fractionation and flotation are improved via enhanced adsorption and interfacial stability. Furthermore, microbial fermentation and nutraceutical delivery are optimized through improved gas-liquid mass transfer and bioavailability. MNBs modulate food microstructures, rheology, and crystallization behavior. Food safety and microbial disinfection are of great importance. MNB-assisted ion flotation offers a solution for seawater desalination, directly addressing global freshwater scarcity. NB-enhanced aeration improves biological treatment efficiency and minimizes gas emissions. By optimizing mass transfer and surface interactions, it reduces processing time, energy, water consumption, and chemical reliance across food systems. Consequently, MNB technology underpins the transition toward resource-efficient and sustainable food processing frameworks.
Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) was evaluated for its effects on gluten-free crackers enriched with 15% Wolffia globosa powder. Crackers contained 0, 0.25, 0.50, 0.75, or 1.00% CMC (flour basis). Increasing CMC significantly altered physical and water-related properties (p < 0.05), increasing thickness and moisture content while decreasing spread ratio, baking loss, and bulk density. Moisture increased from 4.23 to 5.49 g/100 g between 0 and 1.00% CMC. Intermediate concentrations (0.50–0.75%) provided favorable texture and sensory acceptance. Total phenolic content increased from 208.64 to 233.46 mg GAE/100 g, while carotenoid content remained unchanged. In vitro DPPH, ABTS, FRAP, and ORAC responses were generally highest at 0.50–0.75% CMC. In vitro protein digestibility increased from 78.43% to 84.09% at 0.75% CMC, accompanied by lower rapidly digestible starch and higher slowly digestible and resistant starch fractions. Dietary fiber increased from 7.56 to 8.67 g/100 g, while available carbohydrate decreased from 55.24 to 53.01 g/100 g. Overall, 0.50–0.75% CMC provided the most favorable combined textural, sensory, compositional, antioxidant, and in vitro digestibility responses
Clove and Tamarind (CT) extracts are rich in bioactive compounds; however, these compounds are highly susceptible to degradation during processing and storage, leading to reduced functionality and fewer food applications. Encapsulation of protein-polysaccharides has proven effective in retaining and stabilising bioactive compounds. This study investigated the influence of different Xanthan gum (XG): Whey Protein Isolate (WPI) blending ratios (designated XW formulations) on the physicochemical properties and storage stability of freeze-dried CT microcapsules to identify the best carrier system for functional food applications. The extracts and microcapsules were analysed for their physicochemical and structural properties, as well as thermal stability. The CT blend had the highest total phenolic content and DPPH antioxidant capacity. XW 35 (35% XG and 65% WPI) had the highest encapsulation efficiency, while XW 80 (80% XG and 20% WPI) showed the highest solubility. The particle size decreased with increasing xanthan gum proportion, while the low PDI indicated homogeneous systems. Formulations with high xanthan gum ratios exhibited superior thermal stability and better retention of bioactive compounds during storage. The Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) supported interactions between the wall materials and encapsulated bioactives. At the same time, X-ray diffraction (XRD) revealed predominantly amorphous structures, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images showed compact matrices at higher xanthan gum ratios. This study offers new insight into the impact of the XW formulation ratio on the structural and functional dynamics governing the stability and performance of microcapsules containing phenolic-rich plant extracts, demonstrating its potential as a delivery system for functional food, nutraceutical, and pharmaceutical applications.
This study comprehensively investigated the antioxidant activity, phytochemical composition, and potential molecular mechanisms of Camellia longii flower extracts. Among ethanol crude and four fractional extracts, the ethyl acetate extract exhibited the highest total phenolic (774.30 ± 32.15 mg GAE/g DW), flavonoid (278.72 ± 20.24 mg CAE/g DW), and saponin contents (65.62±0.87 mg OAE/g DW). Consistently, the extract also showed the strongest antioxidant activities, with IC50 values of 3.13 µg/mL (DPPH), 6.10 µg/mL (ABTS), and 0.59 µg/mL (MDA), and an EC50 of 7.57 µg/mL (FRAP). In addition, the Pearson correlation revealed strong negative relationships between phenolic and flavonoid contents and IC₅₀ values (r = −0.81 to −0.91, p < 0.1), indicating the key role of phenolic compounds in antioxidant activity. UPLC–QTOF–MS/MS analysis identified 90 compounds, 40 of the 90 compounds belong to flavonoids and phenolic compounds. Subsequently, machine learning and molecular docking were used to screen for potential Keap1–Nrf2 inhibitors. Interestingly, six flavonoids were predicted to be active, with strong binding affinities (−8.8 to −10.0 kcal/mol) to key residues (Arg380, Arg415, Arg483) of Keap1. These findings suggest dual antioxidant actions involving direct free-radical scavenging and potential modulation of the Keap1–Nrf2 antioxidant pathway.
We report on a developed oil blend with modified fatty acid profile and low trans fatty acids. In the formulation of deep-frying oil with a P:M:S ratio of 1:1:1 (i.e., the mass proportions of PUFA, MUFA, and SFA), the database of fatty acid profiles indicated that a mix of the vegetable oils palm stearin 30%, rice bran oil 40%, and soybean oil 30% would potentially satisfy the requirements. The resulting oil mixture achieved a P:M:S ratio of 1.00:0.97:1.00, with trans fatty acid levels below the limit recommended by the U.S. FDA. Samples of the developed oil blend were stored in 250 g HDPE plastic bottles at room temperature (26±2°C) under normal laboratory lighting conditions and evaluated at 0 days and after 3 months of storage. The peroxide value increased from 1.24±0.25 to 7.09±0.53 mEq/kg fat during 90 days of storage at room temperature, remaining within the FDA recommended range (maximum 10.0 mEq/kg fat). Although the TBA value increased from 2.20±0.02 to 10.19±0.04 mg MDA/kg fat during storage, indicating the formation of secondary oxidation products, the peroxide value remained within the acceptable regulatory limit throughout the storage period. The estimated total variable production cost was approximately 73 THB/L (2.1 USD/L).
This study introduces the development of alginate-based edible coatings (Alg) functionalized with thymol-loaded nanocarriers: β-cyclodextrin inclusion complexes (CD), nanoemulsions (NE), and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC). The droplet sizes and zeta potential of CD, NLC, and NE were (210 nm and -21 mV), (170 nm and -23 mV), and (110 nm and -26 mV), respectively. The encapsulation efficiency (EE) of thymol was estimated at 85% for the CD system, 90% for NLCs, and 97% for NE. Alg-NLC (12.23 mg TVB-N/100 g) and Alg-NE (12.37 mg TVB-N/100 g) effectively suppressed the formation of volatile nitrogen bases more than Alg-thymol (17.46 mg TVB-N/100 g) and Alg-CD (15.23 mg TVB-N/100 g) on day 7. The thiobarbituric acid values of samples treated with Alg-NLC (1.2 mg MDA/kg) and Alg-NE (1.3 mg MDA/kg) showed no significant difference (p > 0.05). The NE formulation exhibited a faster thymol release than the NLC and CD systems. This rapid release may have contributed to the pronounced antimicrobial activity of Alg-NE, whereas the more gradual release from NLC could support sustained thymol availability during storage. Consistent with these differences, Alg-NE and Alg-NLC effectively limited the growth of total viable bacteria, lactic acid bacteria, Enterobacteriaceae, yeast, and mold.
Botryosphaeran is a water-soluble extracellular β-(1→3;1→6)-D-glucan exopolysaccharide (EPS) produced by Botryosphaeria rhodina strain; extensively characterized preparations used in the literature display ∼98% glucose content and high molecular weight. This critical review synthesizes botryosphaeran’s physicochemical properties, structural features, and preclinical bioactivities. In rodent models, representative efficacies include blood glucose reductions of up to 52% and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol decreases of ∼27%, supporting its metabolic regulatory potential alongside reported antioxidant and immunomodulatory effects. We organize biological functions in the sequence presented in the main text: metabolic regulation, immune and antitumor activities, and gut-health enhancement via prebiotic effects. Technological applications surveyed include its use as a stabilizer and thickening agent in functional foods, as a microencapsulation matrix for bioactive compounds, and as an enzyme-immobilization matrix for biosensor development. Major translational bottlenecks remain: limited large-scale fermentation yields, batch-to-batch structural heterogeneity, incomplete elucidation of underlying molecular mechanisms, and a paucity of human clinical trials. Compared with cereal, yeast, and mushroom β-glucans, botryosphaeran’s highly branched β-(1→3;1→6) architecture, higher average molecular weight, and stable triple-helical conformation likely underlie its distinct rheological properties and broader bioactivity profile. Based on evidence from fermentation science, structural biology, and immunology, botryosphaeran is a promising candidate for development as a functional food ingredient and nutraceutical for managing cardiometabolic disorders, inflammation, and immune dysregulation, provided scale-up and translational challenges are addressed.
This study was aimed at investigating the antioxidant and antibacterial properties of honey collected in the Somali region of Ethiopia. Antioxidant capacity was assessed by total phenolic, flavonoid, ferric reduction antioxidant potency (FRAP) and 2,2′-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assays. The antibacterial efficacy against L. monocytogenes, S. aureus, S. enterica, and E. coli were determined using agar well diffusion assay (AWDA), minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC). The total phenol varied from 21.08 to 52.29 mg GAE/100 g, while the flavonoid varied between 6.94 to 29.85 mg QE/100 g. FRAP (30.22–87.80 Fe2+mg/100g) and DPPH (50.92–77.99 mg/100g) values indicated the strong antioxidant potential of the honey sample in the study area. AWDA results demonstrated that L. monocytogenes and S. aureus displayed the highest sensitivity, with zone of inhibition 22.25 ± 0.3 mm and 21.8 ± 0.52 mm, respectively, indicating very strong antimicrobial activity. In contrast, E. coli and S. enterica displayed comparatively less susceptibility. MIC results confirmed greater susceptibility of Gram-positive bacteria (6.25–12.5% v/v) in relation to Gram-negative bacteria (25% v/v). The MBC values (6.25–25% v/v) indicated bactericidal effectiveness against bacteria subjected to testing. The study concludes that honey from the Somali region possesses significant antioxidant and antimicrobial properties.
Sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.) press cake is a protein-rich by-product of oil extraction with potential as a sustainable plant-based ingredient; however, its application is limited by poor techno-functional properties. This study investigated the effects of sequential thermal–mechanical treatment (autoclaving followed by colloid milling) on the structural, nutritional, functional, and sensory properties of Sacha inchi press cake. The treatment promoted protein structural modification and matrix disruption, resulting in improved functionality. Protein content increased from 57.03 ± 0.08% to 63.96 ± 0.26% (dry basis) due to protein enrichment, while protein solubility at pH 2 increased by 65% (from 19.29 to 31.79 mg/g). Bulk density decreased by 62%, whereas water-holding capacity, oil-holding capacity, and emulsifying activity increased by 28%, 35%, and 25%, respectively. During simulated gastrointestinal digestion, treated samples exhibited higher protein solubilization in gastric (9.34 mg/g) and intestinal (11.02 mg/g) phases, suggesting improved protein accessibility during digestion. The treated press cake showed a favorable essential amino acid profile, with an essential amino acid index (EAAI) of 108 and predicted biological value (p-BV) of 106 as comparative protein quality indices. Crackers containing 10% treated press cake achieved the highest sensory acceptability among the tested formulations (8.62 ± 0.50/9). Overall, sequential autoclaving and colloid milling provide a practical approach to enhance the techno-functional and nutritional characteristics of Sacha inchi press cake for sustainable food applications.
Seahorses are high-value marine organisms widely used in traditional medicine; however, bioactive peptides from marine invertebrates remain susceptible to proteolytic degradation during gastrointestinal transit, limiting their bioavailability for functional food applications. This study aimed to comparatively characterize three seahorse protein fractions: enzymatic hydrolysate (SPH), pH-shift isolate (SPI), and protein concentrate (SPC) and evaluate their nanoencapsulation performance using chitosan–tripolyphosphate (TPP) ionic gelation. Among the fractionation conditions evaluated, 1.5% Alcalase for SPH (degree of hydrolysis: 77.86%; protein content: 81.76%) and pH 3.0 for SPI (protein content: 73.09%) demonstrated the most favorable balance across fractionation parameters. SPH exhibited the highest total amino acids (63.19 g/100 g), essential amino acids (25.51 g/100 g), antioxidant amino acids (10.53 g/100 g), and taurine precursors (8.51 g/100 g) among all fractions. Nanoencapsulation of SPH (HNE: seahorse protein hydrolysate nanoencapsulate) showed the most favorable physicochemical properties, including particle size (159.73 nm), polydispersity index (PDI: 0.34), zeta potential (+45.70 mV), and encapsulation efficiency (97.16%), outperforming INE and CNE across all parameters. Simulated gastrointestinal studies demonstrated pH-responsive release behavior, with HNE exhibiting the lowest gastric release (18.90%) and the highest intestinal release (95.97%); release kinetics were best described by the Korsmeyer–Peppas (gastric phase, n = 1.09) and Higuchi (intestinal phase) models. Antioxidant activity retention exceeded 94% (DPPH, ABTS, FRAP) following nanoencapsulation of HNE, indicating effective bioactive protection. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first systematic comparative study of Indonesian seahorse protein fractions with parallel nanoencapsulation evaluation, supporting their potential for oral nutraceutical delivery development.
Despite the increasing consumption and widespread cultivation of diverse melon accessions across different regions of Iran, the ripening-related compositional changes of several indigenous accessions remain insufficiently characterized. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate and compare the physicochemical characteristics, bioactive compounds, and antioxidant activity of two lesser-known melon accessions (‘Chaghercheh’ and ‘Zamcheh’) across five developmental stages, from fruit set to full ripening at 10-day intervals over two consecutive years. Fruit fresh weight, dimensional attributes, pulp thickness, and pulp percentage increased progressively during fruit development, reaching their maximum values at the final harvest stage. In contrast, fruit firmness, peel thickness, and the percentages of peel and seed decreased continuously throughout ripening. At full maturity, both accessions exhibited the highest total soluble solids and pH values, accompanied by the lowest titratable acidity, resulting in the highest maturity index. Sucrose accumulated substantially from 30 days after fruit set onward, whereas glucose and fructose concentrations gradually declined. During fruit development, total chlorophyll content decreased, while total carotenoid and flavonoid concentrations increased progressively. Likewise, the levels of ascorbic acid, total phenolics, and antioxidant activity increased during ripening, peaked at 30 days after fruit set, and subsequently declined toward the final harvest stage. Significant differences were observed between the two accessions for all evaluated parameters. Overall, the findings demonstrate that both developmental stage and accession identity are major determinants of the physicochemical characteristics, bioactive composition, and antioxidant activity of melon fruit. These results provide valuable insights for optimizing harvest timing to maximize nutritional quality and commercial value. Furthermore, the ‘Chaghercheh’ and ‘Zamcheh’ accessions represent valuable genetic resources with high levels of bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity, highlighting their potential for the development of nutritionally improved melon cultivars and value-added functional food products.
Tannins are traditionally regarded as antinutritional compounds due to their ability to reduce protein digestibility, inhibit digestive enzymes, and limit mineral bioavailability. However, this reductionist perspective fails to capture their emerging role as functional modulators in food systems. We propose a multiscale framework that integrates molecular interactions, food microstructure, processing-induced transformations, and digestive behavior to explain the complex functionality of tannins. This review synthesizes evidence indicating that tannin effects are inherently non-linear and context-dependent, governed by their molecular structure, concentration, and spatial distribution within food matrices. Importantly, this review introduces the concept of an optimal functional window, in which moderate tannin levels enable controlled modulation of digestion kinetics, improved glycemic response, and enhanced functional properties, without severely compromising nutritional quality. Within this framework, the apparent trade-off between antinutritional effects and health benefits is reinterpreted as a continuum arising from shared interaction mechanisms. By linking mechanistic insights to practical applications, this review proposes a shift in perspective from tannin reduction toward tannin engineering, where their multifunctional behavior can be strategically harnessed to design foods with targeted nutritional and potential physiological outcomes. This perspective provides a foundation for the rational development of next-generation food systems with controlled digestibility and optimized metabolic responses.
This study aimed to develop active packaging based on biodegradable polylactic acid-microcrystalline cellulose (PLA-MCC) films incorporating gallic and ascorbic acids with potential oxygen-scavenging activity. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to combine these compounds as dual additives at various ratios: AG1 (5% GA + 2.5% AA), AG2 (3.75% GA + 3.75% AA), and AG3 (2.5% GA + 5% AA) within a PLA-MCC matrix, significantly affecting structure and mechanical performance. Among the active formulations, AG3 showed the most homogeneous structure, surpassed only by the control, while FTIR confirmed hydrogen bonding without new chemical bonds. Oxygen permeability ranged from 8.30 to 10.70 × 10⁻⁸ g·m⁻¹·s⁻¹, about one order of magnitude higher than LDPE/HDPE but a substantial improvement over neat PLA, reflecting bioplastic trade-offs with no significant differences among formulations. AG1 achieved the highest biodegradation rate (48.92%) over 10 weeks due to structural disruption, while tensile strength increased significantly (5.62–9.70 MPa) with elongation remaining unaffected. The composite exhibited favorable mechanical strength and biodegradation behavior varying with the gallic-to-ascorbic acid ratio, while oxygen barrier performance requires analysis to confirm scavenging potential. This formulation shows promise as eco-friendly packaging for oxygen-sensitive foods, aligning with SDGs 1, 12, and 13.
Pigmented rice is rich in nutraceuticals and encompasses bioactive compounds such as anthocyanins and flavonoids. The bran layers of coloured rice grains, such as black and red rice, contain phenolic compounds. The health benefits of phenolic compounds of pigmented rice include their antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, antiallergic, anti-inflammatory, anti-atherosclerotic, and hypoglycemic actions. Consumption of pigmented rice can help reduce the risk of chronic diseases due to its high antioxidant capacity. This review emphasises the impact of various processing steps, such as milling, cooking, thermal treatments, fermentation, extrusion, and novel processing methods, on the retention of nutrients and bioactive compounds in pigmented rice. Rice milling intensity is influential, with minimal milling retaining significantly higher levels of phenolic compounds and nutrients. Thermal processing yields different effects, such as steaming preserves 85-90% of the anthocyanins, while boiling results in 40-50% losses. Among ready-to-eat forms, popped rice retains more phenolics than puffed or beaten rice, though toasting increases bound polyphenols at the expense of soluble forms. Innovative methods such as cold extrusion and fermentation can further enhance the functional value of pigmented rice. Future research should focus on standardising processes and evaluating storage stability to support their wider adoption as health-promoting foods.
Capparis spinosa L. (caper) fruits are valued for their high content of bioactive flavonoids, particularly rutin, which exhibits significant antioxidant and pharmacological properties. Traditional salting is widely employed for caper preservation, yet its impact on phytochemical stability remains inadequately characterized.This study evaluated the effects of solvent polarity and traditional salting duration on rutin content, antioxidant capacity, and antimicrobial activity of Syrian C. spinosa fruits collected from the Hama Governorate. Soxhlet extraction was performed using ethanol (polar, ε = 24.3), chloroform (intermediate, ε = 4.8), and n-hexane (non-polar, ε = 1.9) on fresh and salt-cured (1 week, 2 weeks, 1 month) fruits. Rutin was quantified by HPLC-DAD with comprehensive method validation (linearity r² = 0.9994; recovery 98.7 ± 2.1%; LOD 0.85 µg/mL; LOQ 2.18 µg/mL). Antioxidant activity was assessed by DPPH radical scavenging assay. Antimicrobial activity was evaluated against Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 and Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853 using agar well diffusion. Fresh ethanolic extracts exhibited the highest rutin content (64.84 ± 2.31 µg/mL; 356.1 ± 12.7 µg/g dry weight; 1935.3 ± 68.9 µg/g extract), which decreased significantly by >94% after one month of salting (3.71 ± 0.42 µg/mL; 20.4 ± 2.3 µg/g dry weight; 192.5 ± 21.7 µg/g extract; p < 0.001). Ethanolic extracts demonstrated superior antioxidant activity (IC₅₀ = 166.27 ± 8.45 mg/L) compared to chloroform (230.31 ± 12.18 mg/L), hexane (982.37 ± 45.62 mg/L), and ascorbic acid standard (320.65 ± 15.33 mg/L). A strong negative correlation was observed between rutin content and IC₅₀ values (r = -0.947, p < 0.001). Antimicrobial screening revealed distinct solvent-dependent profiles: chloroform extracts showed the strongest activity against P. aeruginosa (17.0 ± 0.82 mm inhibition zone), while ethanolic extracts were inactive against E. coli (0 mm). Chloroform and hexane extracts produced equivalent zones against E. coli (12.0 ± 0.55 mm). Traditional salting causes severe degradation of rutin and compromises antioxidant potential in caper fruits. These findings suggest that alternative preservation methods warrant investigation for maintaining the nutraceutical value of processed caper products, though their efficacy requires empirical validation.
Ammodaucus leucotrichus, a medicinal plant endemic to North Africa, is a prolific source of bioactive perillaldehyde (PAE). This study established a sustainable, microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) platform optimized via Response Surface Methodology (RSM) to maximize PAE recovery. Under optimized parameters (900 W, 45 min, 3:1 mL·g⁻¹), MAE achieved a quantitative PAE yield of 98.29%, drastically reducing extraction time compared to traditional hydrodistillation (HD) and steam distillation (SD). Notably, MAE preserved a significantly higher concentration of the bioactive chiral scaffold (85.04% PAE) than HD (70.05%) or SD (72.56%). In vitro bioactivity profiling demonstrated that MAE-extracted PAE possesses elite antioxidant capacity (DPPH: 97.63%) and potent anti-aging efficacy, evidenced by 97.8% Tyrosinase and 95.2% Collagenase inhibition. In silico molecular docking corroborated these findings, identifying favorable binding energies (−6.2 kcal/mol) and stable interactions within enzyme active sites. These results establish MAE-derived PAE as a high-value, sustainable raw material for the global cosmeceutical industry.
Edible insects represent promising sources of bioactive peptides, yet the influence of molecular weight (MW) fractionation and gastrointestinal processing on their multi-enzyme inhibitory potential remains insufficiently characterized. This study systematically evaluated the effects of MW fractionation (<3, 3–5, 5–10, and >10 kDa) and simulated gastrointestinal digestion (SGD) on the inhibitory activities of peptide fractions derived from hydrolysates of three commercially farmed insect species-house cricket (Acheta domesticus; HCK), black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens; BSFL), and silkworm pupae (Bombyx mori; SWP)-against dipeptidyl peptidase-IV (DPP-IV), α-glucosidase, angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE), and pancreatic lipase. Insect proteins were prepared using a non-thermal processing protocol involving sequential ultrasonication and supercritical CO₂ (SC-CO₂) defatting, followed by protein hydrolysis and ultrafiltration fractionation. MW fractionation significantly influenced enzyme inhibitory activities across all species, with the <3 kDa fractions generally exhibiting the strongest inhibition. SGD further enhanced activities in most cases, particularly for the low-MW fractions. The <3 kDa SWP fraction showed notably potent ACE inhibition (IC50 0.05 mg/mL), while the corresponding HCK fraction demonstrated strong α-glucosidase inhibition (IC50 0.07 mg/mL), comparable to acarbose. LC-MS/MS analysis of post-SGD <3 kDa fractions identified several sequences with putative enzyme inhibitory activity, including GPAGPQGPR as a recurrent DPP-IV inhibitory motif across all three species. These findings indicate that MW fractionation and SGD are important factors shaping the enzyme inhibitory properties of insect-derived peptide fractions, supporting their in vitro potential as candidate functional food ingredients for the dietary modulation of metabolic enzyme activity relevant to non-communicable diseases, pending in vivo validation.
Milk adulteration remains one of the most persistent challenges in dairy authentication because fraudulent practices can alter product identity, nutritional quality, consumer safety, and market trust. This problem is particularly important for high-value non-bovine milks, where premium pricing and limited production increase the incentive for economically motivated adulteration. Camel milk is especially vulnerable because it is commonly adulterated through substitution with cheaper milks such as cow, goat, or buffalo milk, dilution with water, or addition of non-milk constituents including whey proteins, nitrogen-rich compounds, stabilizers, and non-milk fats. Detecting these practices is complicated by the intrinsic variability of camel milk composition, which is influenced by breed, feeding system, geography, season, lactation stage, and processing history. Such natural matrix variability can overlap with adulteration-induced changes, making fixed thresholds and single-marker approaches unreliable. This review critically synthesises current analytical strategies for camel milk adulteration detection, with emphasis on sensitivity, specificity, robustness, processing compatibility, calibration transfer, and practical limitations under real matrix conditions, offering a comparative performance evaluation based on target specificity and processing compatibility rather than a descriptive overview of available tools. The approaches include DNA-based methods like PCR, qPCR, multiplex PCR, and LAMP; protein-based assays targeting β-lactoglobulin; spectroscopic techniques such as NIR, MIR/FT-IR, Raman, fluorescence spectroscopy, and multispectral imaging with chemometrics; chromatographic methods including UPLC, RP-HPLC, GC–MS, and LC-MS; and emerging omics, sensor, and AI systems. Although these platforms have improved detection capacity, each is affected differently by matrix variability, processing-induced marker instability, calibration robustness, and validation design. Therefore, this review highlights the need for a tiered authentication framework integrating rapid screening, targeted confirmation, omics-supported biomarker validation, and AI-assisted data fusion structured around camel-milk-specific matrix failure modes.
