This study aims to investigate the availability of earth pigments in the Lake Burtnieks area in Latvia and to analyse the use and symbolic significance of ochre during the Stone Age. Within the study, potential earth pigment samples were collected during the survey. These samples were analysed by laboratory methods - X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy - and compared to ochre samples obtained from archaeological contexts (the Ri & ncedil;& ncedil;ukalns settlement and Zvejnieki archaeological complex). The use of ochre during the Stone Age was characterised by analysing the archaeological context, specifically focusing on the Zvejnieki burial ground. The results of this study reveal a great variety of ochre use in the burial traditions of the Zvejnieki cemetery. Furthermore, significant chronological differences in the use of ochre in the burials were distinguished. From an ethnographic and folkloric perspective, it is likely that ochre, with its red colour, had a deep symbolic value and was an integral part of the burial process. Chemical and mineralogical analysis shows that although ferric sediments are widespread in the surroundings of Lake Burtnieks, none of the samples collected corresponded to those from the archaeological context. However, significant similarities between archaeological samples from Zvejnieki and Ri & ncedil;& ncedil;ukalns were identified.
Publications on hillforts, like those in other areas of archaeological research, serve as important sources of knowledge. Their significance has grown in recent years as the number of new hillfort excavations has decreased considerably, and accordingly earlier publications are now referenced more frequently. By 2024, a total of 48 works on hillforts had been published. The question is, however, whether these studies meet the definition of a ‘comprehensive publication’ and whether the data they present is reliable and provides a suitable basis for future research. A comprehensive publication is a presentation of research material, usually in printed form, containing sufficient data in case the original material is lost. It is in the context of this definition that we here evaluate the Soviet-era publication of excavation results, using the excavations at the hillfort of Narkūnai (eastern Lithuania), conducted between 1976 and 1978 (Lietuvos Archeologija [Lithuanian Archaeology], vol. 5, 1985, pp. 5–49), as a case study. The material from these excavations is well preserved. Due to various restrictions during the Soviet period, the publication of excavation results was very limited. This can be seen from the fact that there are no photographs of the excavations and very little attention is paid to the pottery. Since the scope of research publications is determined by a variety of factors, in order to determine how comprehensive it is, the Narkūnai publication was compared with other works on hillforts published in the recent past. The coefficient obtained shows that the publications from the Soviet period are not comprehensive and do not cover all the research material. Therefore, it is necessary to republish studies on the major hillforts, applying the current advances in archaeological science in the fields of research and dissemination.
This study examines the intra-site structure of two Late Mesolithic sites in southeast Lithuania: Gailiūnai 2 and Varėnė 2. Gailiūnai 2 presents a rare example of a single-period camp with a well-preserved spatial structure of discrete lithic scatters. In contrast, Varėnė 2 is a multi-period palimpsest site with mixed archaeological deposits but with documented Mesolithic features. Spatial analysis, characterisation and refitting of lithic artefacts as well as AMS 14C dating were carried out in order to identify the patterns in the internal organisation of both sites and define the nature of activities that resulted in the formation of their particular structure. The analyses have shown that three discrete lithic clusters at Gailiūnai 2 likely reflect remains of short-term task-specific encampments with the western cluster also displaying evidence of a surface dwelling. Refitting revealed prevalence of short reduction sequences and a technological organisation indicative of short-term stays. Varėnė 2 represents repeated, more substantial occupations involving habitation inside dugout dwellings as well as potential reuse of their pits as dumps. While individual lithic scatters are impossible to distinguish, three dugout structures with artefact-rich fills indicate more substantial habitation for longer periods. Radiocarbon dating has shown that dugouts were probably used between ca. 7170 and 4800 cal BC and in separate phases. The Late Mesolithic habitation at Varėnė 2 involved extensive usage of distinctive reddish-banded flint, which was used contemporaneously with the inhabitation and burial at one of the dugouts. The contrasting site structures highlight variability in Late Mesolithic settlement strategies. These results demonstrate the potential of unstratified sandy sites to reveal meaningful insights into lifeways of Stone Age hunter-gatherers in the southeast Baltic.
The Žardė–Laistai–Bandužiai archaeological complex is one of the largest and most unique prehistoric sites in western Lithuania, dating from the 1st millennium BC to the 13th–14th centuries. Within the complex, the ancient settlements of Bandužiai (Žardė) and Bandužiai I are distinguished by the abundance of features linked to production and economic activities. Years of research at the Bandužiai (Žardė) settlement have provided copious amounts of archaeological material, mostly related to metallurgical activities, but its fragmentary nature makes interpretation difficult and highlights the need for an interdisciplinary approach. This paper presents a more comprehensive overview of the Bandužiai (Žardė) settlement through archaeobotanical finds which have been systematically collected but only analysed to a limited extent. The material derives from multiple archaeological contexts, some of which were radiocarbon-dated using AMS. The dates revealed a direct chronology for some archaeological features, extending from the Late Bronze Age to the Late Iron Age, with the exception of the Roman period. The archaeobotanical analysis produced a large dataset of charred and waterlogged plant remains, enabling detailed insights into agricultural practices, settlement structure and environmental conditions over time, and providing rare insights into plant use in production-oriented areas. Results demonstrated that while the main cultivated species varied across different phases, environmental conditions remained relatively stable. Wild and cultivated plants indicated a frequent human presence from the Pre-Roman period, intensifying in later times. Evidence also suggests that the site might have been used differently at certain times, with a clearly defined industrial zone, a possible food preparation zone and even a short-lived domestic zone during the Viking period. These findings provide one of the most comprehensive archaeobotanical datasets from western Lithuania, contributing to wider discussions of agricultural development and human–environment interaction in the eastern Baltic.
