Tannery industrial effluent (TIE) contains high levels of organic matter, nitrogen, and dissolved solids, which can challenge the ability of conventional biological treatment to consistently achieve regulatory compliance. This study evaluated a two-stage cultivation system using Chlorella vulgaris (C. vulgaris) with centrifuged TIE at three C. vulgaris concentrations (CVG 10%, CVG 20%, and CVG 30%). The study evaluated pollutant removal, microalgal growth, molecular and morphological strain identification, and fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) characterization. The operational performance of the existing full-scale activated sludge (AS) system was also used as a practical benchmark to provide context for the laboratory-scale treatment. Among the tested conditions, CVG 30% exhibited the highest treatment performance, achieving removal efficiencies of 92.94±1.40% for BOD5, 91.60±0.16% for COD, 99.80±0.07% for ammonia, and 58.40±5.05% for TDS. Final BOD5, COD, and ammonia concentrations complied with regulatory discharge standards, whereas TDS remained above the permissible limit, indicating the need for additional polishing treatment. FAME analysis of the harvested biomass from the best-performing condition (CVG 30%) showed a fatty acid profile dominated by methyl linoleate (C18:2), methyl cis-11-eicosenoate (C20:1), and methyl palmitate (C16:0). Overall, two-stage C. vulgaris cultivation demonstrated potential for use as a complementary biological treatment approach for tannery wastewater, while FAME characterization provided insights into the fatty acid composition of biomass from the best-performing condition.
Hydrodynamic cavitation (HC) combined with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is a scalable and energy-efficient hybrid advanced oxidation process (AOP) for treating azo dye wastewater. This review critically analyses HC–H2O2 systems for the degradation of methyl orange (MO), selected as a structurally representative sulfonated monoazo model pollutant. This review adopts a per-pass kinetic framework. All synergy coefficients are derived from per-pass rate constants, (pass-1), rather than time-based rate constants, (min-1), which depend on volume of holding tank. The review provides the first systematic compilation of synergy coefficients for HC–H2O2 systems (calculated S values from published datasets where it was not reported). Three regimes based on H2O2 concentration have been identified: under-dosed, optimal, scavenging. The values of were found to be in the range of 2–4.8 for the optimal H2O2 regime. Reactor design, degradation pathways, ecotoxicological implications, and scale-up are analysed using the standardised metrics throughout. The review concludes with a proposed minimum reporting standard and recommends future research priorities aimed at closing the current gap between laboratory findings and industrial implementation.
Increasing demand for wastewater treatment technologies has highlighted the need for biofilm systems capable of removing nutrients and emerging contaminants while promoting resource circularity. This study proposes an aerobic Upcycled PET Biofilm Carrier Reactor (UPBCR) that valorizes waste PET bottles as biofilm media, integrating polymer selection, biofilm development, nutrient transformation, and microplastic retention. A polymer-selection strategy compared biofilm formation on PET, HDPE, and PMMA. PET exhibited the highest biofilm-supporting capacity, with a biofilm thickness of 428.83 μm, biomass accumulation of 1.33 mg/cm2, and a biofilm formation rate of 0.0657 mg/cm2·day. The PET carrier was applied in an aerobic UPBCR operated under organic loadings of 200–600 mg/L COD. Microbial growth kinetics were described by the Monod model, yielding a maximum specific growth rate (μmax) of 2.72 day−1 and a half-saturation constant (Ks) of 78.72 mg/L. The system achieved removal of NH4+ (76.59%), TKN (77.02%), total phosphorus (86.54%), orthophosphate (88.74%), and microplastics (91.25%). Nitrogen removal was driven by nitrification and microbial assimilation, while phosphorus removal was associated with orthophosphate uptake and polyphosphate accumulation. Microplastic retention occurred through biofilm entrapment and sludge settling. These findings demonstrate that recycled PET-based biofilm systems provide a platform for nutrient and microplastic control in wastewater treatment.
The integration of ultrafiltration (UF) into recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) is a promising strategy for managing organic wastewater contaminants, yet its efficacy is hindered by severe membrane fouling and physico-chemical transformation. This study investigates these challenges by evaluating polysulfone (PS) membrane under dead-end and cross-flow hydrodynamics. Performance was systematically assessed using shrimp feed (SF; 1.5–2.5 g.L-1) and humic acid (HA; 0.2–0.7 g.L-1) as aquaculture-relevant model foulants under varied operating pressures. The single-foulant systems were employed to isolate foulant-specific membrane responses under controlled conditions rather than to reproduce the complete physicochemical composition of actual RAS water. Pristine and fouled membranes were characterized (MWCO, SEM, FTIR, contact angle) to elucidate fouling mechanisms. Post-operation analyses revealed distinct, foulant-specific surface transformations. Higher operating pressures were associated with more pronounced time-dependent flux deterioration, particularly during SF filtration, whereas HA maintained consistently high rejection across the investigated pressure range. Furthermore, Cross-flow operation exhibited higher mean flux than dead-end filtration under the investigated conditions, with the configuration-associated enhancement being particularly pronounced for SF.
The study evaluated the influence of biochar dosage on biogas and methane (CH4) generation and organics removal during anaerobic digestion (AD) of abattoir effluent. Batch samples were prepared with cow dung inoculum and biochar doses of 0 - 70 g L-1 and filled up to 800 mL with abattoir effluent. The experiment was monitored for 40 days using an Automated Methane Potential System (AMPTS III). Biochar markedly affected gas production, with a 2 g L-1 dosage yielding the highest cumulative biogas of 3864.9 ± 158.9 mL, which exceeded the control (2701.0 ± 53.9 mL). This resulted in cumulative CH4 of 2371.9 ± 59.0 mL, which was 30% higher than the control experiment. Excessive biochar doses yielded lower biogas yields, such as the 30 and 70 g/L, which yielded 2703 ± 55.4 mL and 2611.3 ± 41.6 mL of biogas. CH4 content ranged from 61 to 69%. Soluble Chemical oxygen demand (sCOD) removal mirrored the gas trends, wherein the digestate sCODs were 1.12 ± 0.03 - 2.62 ± 0.30 g L-1 for 2, 4, 8, 30, and 70 g L-1, corresponding to up to 73.14 ± 1.05% reduction. Thus, low–moderate dosing (2–8 g L-1) enhances energy recovery and organics removal, whereas excessive dosing (≥30 g L-1) reduces performance; possibly due to sorption/occlusion or hydraulic effects that limit substrate accessibility.
By altering the preparation temperature (60, 80, and 100°C), this study explores the impregnation of mangosteen peel extract (MP) onto graphene oxide (GO) in order to enhance the quality of GO surface functional groups and CO2 adsorption. The adsorbent was prepared using the modified Hummer's method and subsequently characterized by its surface and chemical characteristics. Nitrogen adsorption-desorption analysis revealed that GO 60 + MP exhibited a type IV isotherm with an H2 hysteresis loop, indicating dominant mesoporous characteristics, whereas GO 80 + MP and GO 100 + MP showed type III isotherms with weaker adsorption-desorption interactions. The BET surface area of GO 60 increased from 52.64 m2/g to 71.27 m2/g after mangosteen peel impregnation. The CO2 adsorption capacity of GO 60 increased from 0.51 mmol/g to 1.86 mmol/g after impregnation. In addition, the energy gap decreased from 3.29 eV to 3.04 eV after surface modification. The adsorbent also demonstrated preliminary regeneration capability and relatively stable adsorption performance during the investigated adsorption-desorption cycles under fixed-bed conditions. Furthermore, adsorption kinetic analysis showed that the Avrami fractional-order model better described pristine GO, suggesting relatively heterogeneous adsorption behavior, whereas the impregnated samples exhibited more consistent fitting with pseudo-first-order and pseudo-second-order models after surface modification.
Open dumping poses significant environmental, health, and socio-economic risks. The Repi dumpsite exemplifies these challenges. This study assessed perceived risks using an integrated fuzzy analytical hierarchy process (FAHP) and qualitative bow-tie model. Risks were identified and evaluated through the Delphi method based on expert judgments, and screened using risk matrix analysis. Screened risks were weighted and prioritized through FAHP pairwise comparisons, with consistency ratios ensuring logical judgments. Sensitivity analysis confirmed ranking robustness, with top risks unchanged across all scenarios. Twenty-eight risks were screened across environmental (9), health (11), and socio-economic (8) domains. Environmental risks ranked “Contamination of downstream water sources” highest (CW: 0.12445), followed by "Degradation of the surrounding soil and water quality, and unaesthetic appearance" (CW: 0.12284). Health and safety risks ranked "Occupational health risks to waste pickers" first (CW: 0.10039), followed by “Vector- and rodent-borne diseases" (CW: 0.09725). Socio-economic risks ranked “Loss of aesthetic value" first (CW: 0.13597), followed by "Decrease in quality of life" (CW: 0.13378). The Bow-tie model mapped causal pathways to critical control barriers, providing visual intervention pathways for targeted remediation. Findings support SDG 6 (Clean water), SDG 3 (Health), and SDG 11 (Sustainable cities). The framework is transferable, but site-specific recalibration is needed.
Accurate blue-carbon assessment in fragmented estuarine landscapes remains challenging because multispectral optical data may saturate over dense canopies and plot observations are often sparse. This study developed a Google Earth Engine workflow integrating Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation (GEDI) spaceborne Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR), Sentinel-1 C-band synthetic aperture radar (SAR), Sentinel-2 multispectral imagery, Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) topography, principal component analysis (PCA), and machine-learning models to estimate aboveground blue-carbon stocks in the Cua Dai estuary, central Vietnam. After strict quality, sensitivity, and land-water screening, 2,781 GEDI top-of-canopy height (TCH) footprints and 6,711 GEDI aboveground biomass density (AGBD) footprints were retained as spaceborne reference observations. Random Forest (RF), Gradient Boosted Trees (GBT), Support Vector Machine (SVM), and Classification and Regression Trees (CART) were compared. RF produced the most stable performance, with root mean square error (RMSE) values of 17.32 Mg ha-1 for AGBD and 5.45 m for TCH. The resulting map estimated a mean aboveground carbon (AGC) stock of 13.659 Mg C ha-1 and a total AGC pool of 109,472.12 Mg C across the vegetated landscape. High-carbon hotspots were concentrated in mangrove and riparian alluvial zones in the southwestern sector. Because no local plot-based biomass inventory was available, the outputs should be interpreted as GEDI-calibrated, aboveground carbon estimates rather than fully field-validated total blue-carbon stocks. The workflow provides a rapid and scalable basis for restoration targeting, ecosystem-service valuation, and future measurement, reporting, and verification systems.
Remediation of oil-polluted soil is challenging due to hydrophobic hydrocarbons that impair hydraulic conductivity, which governs water flow, runoff, and contaminant transport. This study examined and optimized an integrated electrobiokinetic remediation system involving phytoremediation, biodegradation, and electrokinetics in crude oil-contaminated clay loam soil planted with bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon) at varying crude oil levels of 1.5%, 3%, and 4.5%, electric potential gradients of 0, 1.5, and 3 V cm-1, biological supplements of 0%, 3% Pseudomonas fluorescens, and 3% algal-bacterial consortium (Chlorella + Pseudomonas fluorescens), and soil moisture regimes of 60%, 80%, and 100% of field capacity. Response Surface Methodology modeled effects on static/dynamic water repellency and saturated hydraulic conductivity. The electro-biokinetic approach significantly reduced water repellency and increased hydraulic conductivity. Optimal results were observed in Run 22 (1.5% oil, 1.5 V cm-1, 3% algal-bacterial consortium), reducing dynamic repellency to 0.255 s and static repellency to 36.77°, and increasing hydraulic conductivity to 54.95 cm day-1. The algal-bacterial consortium (dried Chlorella biomass + P. fluorescens) demonstrated the most significant improvement. High model predictive power (R2 = 0.9243, 0.9171, 0.9469) supports this synergistic method for improving hydraulic and hydrophobicity balance in petroleum-affected soils. This highlights the potential of the applied integrated strategy as a promising approach for improving the hydraulic functioning of petroleum-contaminated soils. However, further field-scale validation under different environmental conditions should be considered.
In recent years, Ben Tre City has implemented various measures to improve the urban living environment, including reducing surface water pollution, expanding drainage infrastructure, and investing in centralized wastewater treatment facilities. Nevertheless, domestic wastewater generated in existing residential areas remains largely untreated, posing persistent environmental challenges and underscoring the need for decentralized wastewater treatment systems that are technically appropriate, economically viable, and well suited to local conditions. To address this challenge, this study proposes a systematic multi-criteria decision-making framework for evaluating and selecting decentralized wastewater treatment technologies using 29 indicators grouped into four dimensions (technical, economic, social, and environmental), developed through expert consultation and stakeholder input. The evaluation identifies an anaerobic baffled tank coupled with a planted filter system as the most suitable technology, achieving the highest overall score (30.71) owing to its superior treatment performance, cost-effectiveness, operational simplicity, high level of community acceptance, and compatibility with local management capacity. The study further identifies suitable locations for decentralized wastewater treatment facilities and evaluates their economic feasibility through cost–benefit analysis (CBA). The results indicate that all five proposed treatment facilities are economically feasible (B/C > 1), with Stations 3 and 5 representing the most attractive investment options, achieving B/C ratios of 1.37 and 1.34, respectively. Furthermore, Geographic Information System (GIS) - based spatial analysis is employed to optimize the layout of wastewater collection and drainage networks, providing a scientific support tool for infrastructure planning, system management, and the sustainable development of urban wastewater systems in Ben Tre City, Vietnam.
This study investigated a novel 200 L direct-contact hot-gas pyrolysis system integrated with a cross-draft biomass gasifier–burner for sugarcane bagasse conversion. Hot gas from hedge bamboo residue combustion was introduced directly into the reactor to enhance heat transfer and enable multi-product recovery. Feedstock moisture contents of 10–40 wt% were evaluated for thermal performance, product yields, energy use, emissions, greenhouse gas intensity, and product quality. Increasing moisture content reduced the heating rate from 16 to 7 °C min−1, prolonged pyrolysis time from 50 to 118 min, decreased biochar yield from 17.3 to 10.9 wt%, and increased specific energy consumption from 29 to 68 MJ kg−1 biochar. The higher liquid yield mainly resulted from water-rich condensation rather than increased organic bio-oil recovery. The 10 wt% moisture condition provided the best overall performance. The biochar contained 64.9–65.4 wt% fixed carbon, had an HHV of 24.43–24.71 MJ kg−1, and iodine numbers of 248.1–256.9 mg g−1. Compared with indirect charcoal kilns, the system reduced active processing time by 76.7–84.4% and total cycle time by 41.0–60.6%, demonstrating a rapid and energy-efficient route for small-scale bagasse valorization.
A water supply system (WSS) serving six districts in a large tropical Indonesian city reported 0.04–1.84% diarrhea cases in 2023. Given the importance of safe drinking water for public health, a Water Safety Plan (WSP) based on a risk management approach from catchment to consumer tap was carried out to identify and prioritize risks within the WSS. The raw risk analysis identified 150 hazardous events classified as extreme, very high, high, and medium risk levels; and the source as having the highest overall risk, followed by the water treatment plant (WTP) and consumer points, underscoring the impact of catchment activities and operational practices on water safety. The residual risk analysis observed that control measures were effective in the transmission system, clear well, and most parts of the distribution system and customer points, but were ineffective or of uncertain at the source, intake, and WTP. Targeted improvement plans and continuous operational monitoring are thus necessary to further minimize risks and ensure safe drinking water throughout the WSS. The improvement plans addressing extreme risks, particularly in the distribution and consumer areas, should be prioritized to improve drinking water safety and support public health protection.
Modifying highly active Ni/CeO2 catalysts with less expensive materials whilst maintaining their catalytic activity is a challenging yet intriguing research direction. Herein, biochar was engineered from cassava peels and introduced into a Ni/CeO2-based catalyst for methanation. The as-prepared catalysts were tested for CO2 methanation in a temperature range of 250 °C – 400 °C at a volumetric weight hourly space velocity of 30,000 mL g−1 h−1. Systematic analysis of the prepared materials was conducted to elucidate the performance–characterisation relationship. The incorporation of biochar resulted in modified Ni/CeO2 catalysts with favourable textural properties and Ni crystallite sizes (25–37 nm). Sequential impregnation was found to be an effective procedure to fabricate biochar-modified Ni/CeO2 catalysts with high catalytic activity corresponding to a CO2 conversion of 74.8% and a CH4 selectivity of over 98% at 350 °C. This high catalytic activity remained stable without any significant deactivation throughout a 100-h stability test. Although further development is still needed, the obtained results show the potential of utilising low-value biomass resources to tailor a high-performance catalyst with good catalytic activity and stability during methanation.
Loratadine is an emerging antihistamine contaminant, but its removal using biomass-supported metal-organic framework adsorbents remains scarcely explored. In this work, zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 supported on cocoa-pod-husk-derived biochar (ZIF-8@BC) was synthesized through in situ ZIF-8 growth on alkaline-modified biochar. The material was characterized by XRD, FTIR, TGA, SEM/EDX, elemental analysis, N2 adsorption-desorption, pH, and pHPZC measurements. The results confirmed the formation of crystalline ZIF-8 domains on the carbonaceous matrix, with increased nitrogen and zinc contents, alkaline surface behavior, and improved textural properties. Loratadine adsorption was evaluated in synthetic aqueous solution under different pH, dose, concentration, contact time, and temperature conditions, with HPLC quantification. The best performance was obtained at pH 6 using 75 mg of adsorbent. Kinetic data were better described by the pseudo-first-order model, while equilibrium behavior followed the Sips model, indicating heterogeneous adsorption with finite saturation. Thermodynamic parameters showed spontaneous and weakly endothermic uptake. The proposed mechanism involves pore filling, hydrophobic interactions, π-π stacking, hydrogen bonding, and possible Lewis acid-base interactions. ZIF-8@BC also retained 82.9% of its adsorption capacity after five reuse cycles without formal regeneration.
This study reports on the adsorption properties of alkali-activated alumino-silicates derived from low calcium coal fly ash (G1) or high calcium GGBS (G2), prepared solely with an alkaline solution of NaOH/Na2SiO3 (silica modulus, Ms 1.1). In order to confirm the adsorbents structural characteristics, FTIR spectral analysis, powder XRD patterns, and SEM-EDS for morphology were used. The equilibrium adsorption capacity (qe) for Methylene Blue (MB) was evaluated for both samples using a flow reactor, under optimized conditions: 10 cm bed height, 5 mL/min flow rate, and an initial MB concentration of 10 ppm at pH 10. Under these conditions, adsorption capacities of 48 mg/g for G1 and 38 mg/g for G2 were achieved. Further, DOE-RSM data obtained with a quadratic model with a high regression coefficient (R2 = 0.953) and an insignificant lack of fit (0.2426). Dye sorption equilibrium isotherms were modeled to explain the adsorption mechanism. Chemisorption of MB showed an excellent fit to the Thomas model, R2 value of 0.991. In addition to experimental studies, Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System integrated with a Genetic Algorithm (ANFIS-GA) was employed to model the nonlinear adsorption process and optimize the membership function parameters, thereby improving predictive performance. Upon training and simulation, the ANFIS-GA model achieved a high correlation coefficient (R2) in the range of 0.96 – 0.97, and a low mean squared error (MSE). Thus, this waste based, low-cost adsorbents support SDGs related to water, including SDG#6 (sustainable wastewater treatment), SDG#12 (resource valorization and circular economy practices), SDG#15 (helps protect terrestrial ecosystems from contaminated effluent discharge) and Industry 4.0.
The increasing demand for lithium in energy storage systems requires efficient extraction from alternative resources such as lepidolite. This study compares alkaline pressure leaching, alkaline roasting, and acid baking for lithium recovery from Mapatizya lepidolite (1.54 wt% Li), characterised as a lithium-rich aluminosilicate dominated by trilithionite and quartz. Alkaline pressure leaching achieved the highest recoveries, reaching 95.5% with NaOH at 240 °C. Alkaline roasting also yielded significant recoveries (95% with NaOH at 500 °C and 2.5 g/g feed) and was selected as the best option because of its potential for simpler process operation, lower capital costs, and greater scalability. In contrast, acid baking produced lower recoveries (∼82%).
Groundwater recharge using treated sewage treatment plant (STP) effluent requires effective polishing to prevent aquifer contamination. This study evaluates the long-term performance of soil–sand and biochar–sand filtration systems operated under a Soil Aquifer Treatment (SAT) framework using effluent from a single STP in Chennai, India. Two laboratory-scale filtration units were operated continuously for six months at a hydraulic loading rate of 400 L m−2 day−1 without media replacement or regeneration. Performance was assessed at Day 0 and Day 180 to examine initial efficiency and long-term stability. Influent strength increased notably at Day 180, with COD rising from 20 to 32 mg L−1 and sulphate from 82 to 167 mg L−1. Despite higher loading, both systems improved effluent quality. At Day 180, the soil–sand system achieved 43.7% COD removal and 83.3% BOD removal, whereas the biochar–sand system achieved 68.7% COD removal and complete BOD removal (100%). Biochar–sand filtration also demonstrated superior reduction of TSS (95.4%), EC (37.0%), TDS (39.3%), chloride (36.4%), and sulphate (62.9%). The sustained six-month performance without regeneration indicates enhanced stability of biochar-amended media for managed aquifer recharge applications.
The cinnamon (Cinnamomum burmannii) bark extract contains cinnamaldehyde, which has beneficial applications across various sectors. This extract can be obtained rapidly using microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), thereby improving yield while minimizing solvent use and extraction time. This study investigates the effects of operational parameters on the yield of cinnamon bark extract. The highest yield (7.00%) was achieved with a solid-to-solvent ratio of 1:6 (m/v), microwave power of 450 W, and an extraction time of 30 minutes. The second-order kinetic model accurately represents the extraction process. Under optimal conditions, the process required 0.064 kWh/g extract, incurred a cost of IDR 0.093/g extract, and emitted 0.051 g CO2/g extract. This study confirms that MAE is an efficient and environmentally friendly approach to obtain cinnamaldehyde-containing extracts from cinnamon bark by balancing yield, energy consumption, and environmental impact.
Sulfur-modified graphene is a promising material owing to its structural defects and surface chemistry, which aid in the formation of functional hybrid nanocomposites. We synthesized and studied sulfur-modified graphene-magnetite hybrid nanocomposites to understand their structural evolution and surface chemistry. The hybrid structures were confirmed using X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Raman spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and magnetic susceptibility measurements. Raman analysis showed an increased defect density in the graphene lattice after sulfur modification, indicating structural disorder, whereas SEM observations confirmed the homogeneous distribution of magnetite nanoparticles on the graphene surface. EDX point analysis detected sulfur at a low concentration (0.08 ± 0.03 at.%), supporting sulfur-assisted surface modification despite the absence of a distinct S 2p signal in XPS. XPS results revealed changes in carbon bonding and confirmed the presence of magnetite nanoparticles via Fe 2p signals. Magnetic susceptibility measurements provide insights into the magnetic properties and confirm the integration of magnetite nanoparticles into graphene systems. These results indicate that sulfur-assisted modification influences the structural and surface chemical characteristics of graphene-based hybrid nanocomposites. The synthesized hybrid nanocomposite exhibited promising characteristics as a functional filler for membranes owing to sulfur-induced defect-mediated interfacial interactions and improved structural stability.
Development of renewable, bio-based, sustainable materials for replacing petroleum derived products is the urgent necessity at present. Cellulose based hydrogel (CHG) was developed from agro based pulp using different polycarboxylic acids viz. citric acid (CA), succinic acid (SA) and malic acid (MA) as non-toxic and green crosslinkers and crosslinking reaction conditions were optimized. The study reported maximum swelling at 1% crosslinker concentration and 75°C reaction temperature for citric acid crosslinked hydrogel and at 1% and 90°C for both succinic acid and malic acid crosslinked hydrogels. Among all, the maximum swelling degree (1102 ± 4.58%) was recorded for citric acid crosslinked hydrogels while succinic and malic acid crosslinked hydrogels exhibited the peak swelling degrees at 820 ± 2.65% and 956 ± 3.61% respectively. The rheological study reported non-newtonian behaviour of all the three CHGs with citric acid crosslinked hydrogels consistently exhibiting higher viscosity (2.24 Pa s) in comparison to succinic (0.192 Pa s) and malic acid (0.213 Pa s) crosslinked hydrogels. The hydrogels were characterized through FTIR, XRD, TGA, FESEM and BET surface area analysis. The statistical analysis further confirmed the robustness and predictive analysis of gradient boosting model. Conclusively, CHGs having excellent swelling ability were successfully synthesized from agro-residue pulp having significant translational potential across emerging next-generation application domains.
