The study of women’s roles within Byzantine political and intellectual life has in recent years attracted significant scholarly interest because it highlights the multiple dimensions of gender (phylon) across social, theological, and anthropological contexts. Among the few women who rose to the summit of Byzantine power, Empress Irene of Athens remains an exceptional figure. Her notoriety stems not only from the immense political authority she exercised, but also from the fact that she was the first woman to be formally referred to with the title basileus rather than basilissa. This distinction represented more than a simple change in terminology; it disrupted the traditional association between imperial authority and masculine identity, while revealing broader tensions concerning the relationship between gender, power, and anthropology in Byzantine society. Irene’s emergence into the public sphere, not merely as the wife of a ruler but as sovereign herself, makes her an especially valuable case study for examining gendered identity in the medieval Greek world. Central to this inquiry is how a woman could embody an institution historically constructed and legitimised by male paradigms of authority. Addressing this issue requires careful examination of both the primary sources describing her political and personal actions and the theoretical framework of Byzantine thought, in which gender was closely tied to divine creation, the psychosomatic unity of humanity, and humanity’s role within the divine economy. This analysis argues that Irene moved beyond being a simple anomaly within a male-dominated system and instead became a symbol for the reconstruction of women’s identity in both social and theological spheres. Her reign brought together gender as biological reality, gender as social construct, and imperial authority as a transcendent institution, thereby reshaping understandings of Byzantine imperial and gendered identity.
This article examines Origen of Alexandria’s theological anthropology through the lens of gender. It argues that, for Origen, gender is not an essential attribute of the human being but a temporary, postlapsarian condition. Drawing from his allegorical exegesis, especially of Genesis, the study shows that Origen conceives the male and female as symbolic of spirit and soul, destined to be reunited in spiritual harmony. Through asceticism and mystical union with Christ, the eschatological human transcends all gender differentiation. The article assesses Origen’s relevance to contemporary gender discourse, proposing a distinct, theocentric model of gender transcendence.
This paper traces the conceptual lineage from Plato’s erotic anthropology to the Christian doctrine of theosis, arguing that the Platonic quest for divine likeness (homoíōsis theōi) reconfigures sexual difference and human nature within a metaphysical framework of unity and desire. Against the backdrop of 4th-century Athenian patriarchy, Plato’s myths and metaphors – notably the androgyne (Symp. 189c-193d) and the figure of Diotima – present sexual differentiation (φύλον) as a sign of metaphysical division, while erotic desire drives the soul toward ontological unity with the divine. This framework is later radicalized by the Church Fathers (Origen, Gregory of Nyssa), who universalize godlikeness into theosis: the transfiguration of the whole person, including gendered embodiment. By moving from contemplation to participatory deification, the Platonic-patristic synthesis offers a transformative anthropology that challenges both ancient gender norms and modern essentialist–constructivist binaries.
This paper situates the issue of gender ontology within the context of the larger intellectual exchange between Islamic Qurʾānic anthropology and Aristotelian biological essentialism; a discourse rooted in ancient philosophical traditions and convincing throughout the medieval period. It explores how the Aristotelian teleological scheme that establishes the male as the standard type and the female as a “deficient” set the pattern to further philosophical and theological development of the concept of φύλον (gender) and juxtaposes this with the Qurʾānic understanding of humanity as being created from one nafs, with equal moral responsibility and spiritual capacity. The paper follows the lines of a theoretical and comparative hermeneutic approach in studying primary texts – Generation of Animals and Politics among Aristotle, the Qurʾān in Arabic, and major tafsīr works – as well as a selection of medieval commentaries, including Avicenna, Ibn Rushd, and Thomas Aquinas, to seek continuities and structural breaks in anthropological assumptions. The analysis shows that while both traditions recognise the biological dimension of differentiation, the Qurʾānic system is opposed to any ontological hierarchy, basing human value in piety and divine intent instead of biological shape. The results indicate that a dialogue with these traditions can provide a philosophically fruitful approach to reconsider gender essentialism in the ancient-medieval tradition, contributing to current discussions on the philosophical foundations of gender without obscuring their historical distinctiveness.
The purpose of this article is to clarify epistemology in Augustine’s philosophical perspective. The hypothesis proposed is whether Augustine laid the foundation for Western theology and philosophy. Did his epistemology aim to demonstrate the existence of God? To address this question and hypothesis, we delve into several key aspects: systematically presenting Augustine’s perspective on epistemology, analyzing his views on understanding the nature of God, and providing discussions and suggestions for future research directions. To achieve these objectives, we employ primary research methods such as historical analysis, synthesis, and interpretation.
