Abstract Political accountability in fragile states is often symbolic rather than transformative. This study examines why increased digital civic engagement and media exposure fail to generate systemic political reform in Lebanon. Using a sequential explanatory mixed-methods design, it combines a nationwide survey of 882 adults with in-depth interviews to analyze accountability dynamics amid prolonged institutional collapse. Results show that partisan media exposure strengthens trust in sectarian elites ( = 0.45) while reducing perceived urgency for reform, reinforcing political inertia. In contrast, engagement with non-partisan media promotes adaptive civic participation through Flux Capacity, defined as individuals’ ability to sustain engagement under structural uncertainty ( = 0.28). Qualitative findings reveal that citizens navigate systemic disorder (Structural Entropy) by curating information, pacing engagement, and tolerating ambiguity. The study confirms an Accountability Paradox whereby digital media imposes reputational costs on elites ( = 0.49) without producing policy change. Rather than disrupting extractive systems, digital media stabilizes political endurance in fragile contexts.
Abstract This paper analyzes the regional role of the United Arab Emirates after 2011, and how it evolved from a minor country under the hegemony of Saudi Arabia into playing a regional role extending far beyond its own potential. The theory of Proxy-Enhanced Middle Power Strategy ( PEMPS ) is used to explain this. Based on this theory, I argue that the UAE was able to boost its regional role by operating as a proxy for Israel in various regions and continents.
Abstract During World War I , most of the male population in Lebanon was mobilized and conscripted into military service (known as the Sefer Barlik). As a result, women and children bore the brunt of the suffering. Women, in particular, became victims of multiple crises: the ruthless greed of wealthy merchants, the naval blockade of the Syrian-Lebanese coast by European powers, the corruption of Ottoman officials, devastating locust plagues, and ultimately the Ottoman government’s poor planning in addressing the needs of its people during the war. My article addresses these issues and deals with the reasons that caused the famine. It sheds light on the impact of the famine on women of various social strata. I examine images of the famine women that depicted them as “monsters,” “wild,” “unruly,” “weak,” and “selfish,” which give the impression that women, unlike men, were irrational, unreliable, and could not endure wars. The direct impression one gets when reading studies that dealt with WWI and famine in Ottoman Lebanon is that women easily succumbed to hunger, which could also imply that men, the strong and powerful, did not. In addition, I highlight the ways in which the rising Lebanese bourgeoisie used the famine to construct the national narrative of the Lebanese nation state.
Abstract The crisis in Libya remains unresolved due to deep political divisions and foreign interference since the 2011 uprising. This research proposes that Libya’s conflict is driven by political polarization, which has worsened into affective polarization, where opposing factions view each other as existential threats. External actors deepened these divides by supporting the rival groups, making peace efforts difficult. The research uses political and affective polarization as frameworks to analyze Libya’s fragmentation, examining how external agendas and internal divisions have stalled stability. Key findings suggest that resolving Libya’s crisis requires two steps: ending foreign interference and establishing a unified, centralized authority that could mitigate chaos by reducing militia influence and external manipulation. However, current divisions and weak institutions pose major challenges. The research concludes that without removing foreign intervention and fostering national cohesion, Libya’s path to stability remains uncertain.
Abstract This paper examines how contested states, whose sovereignty may be legally recognized yet exercised under conditions of occupation, use symbolic participation in international organizations to advance statehood claims, namely the Symbolic Membership for Aspirational Sovereignty Framework. Focusing on Palestine. It explores how observer status, selective memberships, and strategic accessions have been deployed to assert legitimacy and sustain international attention despite limited recognition. The study highlights both the opportunities and constraints these symbolic strategies pose, revealing their power to mobilize support while also risking politicization and backlash. It argues that symbolic memberships, although insufficient to resolve territorial disputes, are critical tools for maintaining contested claims within global governance structures and shaping evolving norms of legitimacy in international relations.
