Abstract Prototyping is an integral component of the engineering design process. Despite its central role, there remains a gap in understanding how prototyping frameworks might overlap, align or contradict, which this systematized literature review addresses. Understanding this gap is crucial, as prototypes directly influence the efficiency and effectiveness of developing new technologies and products that shape everyday life. This review synthesizes research from engineering design by examining theoretical and empirical studies, providing a holistic perspective on the current state of prototyping scholarship. A preliminary framework presents four aspects that can be used to characterize prototypes (Purpose, Dimension, Representation, Approach). Findings reveal that literature on virtual prototypes appears distant from literature on iterative and parallel prototyping. In addition, there are fewer pieces of literature on virtual, augmented and mixed reality focused on building conceptual or theoretical foundations. Clustering analysis reveals relationships and trends within the current literature. Finally, an in-depth examination of hybrid prototyping highlights inconsistencies in the way it is defined, underscoring a lack of consensus in the engineering design community. The outcomes of this review aim to clarify ongoing discourse in engineering design theory, call for expanded experimental work and present four propositions to be examined by future work.
Abstract This study explores the task-dependent effects of ChatGPT support in synchronous collaborative Computer-Aided Design (CAD) activities. While large language models (LLMs) such as ChatGPT are increasingly being integrated into engineering design, evidence on their influence in collaborative CAD activities remains limited. Addressing this gap, a between-subjects experiment was conducted with 22 pairs of engineering students performing three synchronous collaborative CAD tasks requiring varying combinations of CAD and domain-specific knowledge. To assess the task-dependent effects, the study evaluated taskwork through the number of CAD user actions, productivity, efficiency and CAD dominance. Results show that ChatGPT’s influence was highly task-dependent. In tasks relying primarily on CAD knowledge, ChatGPT-supported pairs exhibited lower productivity and efficiency. Conversely, in tasks requiring domain-specific engineering knowledge, ChatGPT support showed potential to improve efficiency. The study also offers methodological insights for designing controlled experiments involving ChatGPT support in collaborative CAD, underscoring that effective integration depends on task, tool and user-related factors. The findings further imply that integrating ChatGPT into engineering design education and practice requires developing competencies for critical and coordinated ChatGPT use within collaborative workflows, ensuring that ChatGPT complements rather than replaces designers. Future research should examine professional settings, teamwork and long-term adaptation to ChatGPT-supported synchronous collaborative CAD activities.
Abstract Design methods should support engineers in efficiently developing technical systems but are often considered difficult to understand and apply. Conventional method validation focuses on performance outcomes, providing little insight into how users experience methods during application or adaptation. Structured reflection has been discussed to uncover misunderstandings and identify improvements, but its systematic application in method development remains underexplored. This article investigates how reflection can support design method adaptation in early validation. A multiple-workshop case study was conducted with 20 participants applying four methods under comparable conditions during the Product Architecture Design Summer School. Reflection was systematically planned, guided and analyzed through coded audios. The dataset includes four planning documents, 20 Canvas documents, 400 minutes of recordings and questionnaire feedback on reflection tools. Results show recurring reflection patterns: reflection is strongly process-oriented; action planning emerges only after descriptive phases ; social aspects are rarely addressed without explicit prompts. While reflection tools were perceived as useful, guiding questions require simplification for intuitive use. A four-stage framework for Reflection-Driven Method adaptation is proposed, supporting researchers in planning, executing and analyzing reflection as a method validation instrument. The study demonstrates how reflection can produce actionable improvements and offers a reproducible approach for early method validation in engineering design.
Creativity in design is assessed based on novelty and value. Existing methods to assess novelty, value and creativity (NVC) in design primarily focus on ideas/concepts. The objectives of this research are as follows: (a) to develop a method to assess novelty and value of prototypes and, from these, calculate their creativity; (b) to demonstrate the use of the method and (c) to evaluate the method’s precision, reliability and effectiveness. The method uses metrics and evaluation aspects pertinent to a given prototype, and these are extracted from requirements in a design task. The method is demonstrated by using it to assess NVC of functional prototypes developed in a course project. The method’s precision is evaluated in terms of variance in NVC values when used to assess a given functional prototype; the coefficient of variation ranges between 0.22 and 0.44. The reliability is evaluated by comparing NVC values of a prototype obtained through the method with those estimated by experienced designers; the normalized RMSE varies between 7% and 16%. The effectiveness is evaluated by comparing NVC values of a prototype assessed with/by: the proposed method, an existing method and experienced designers. The proposed method shows more alignment with experts’ intuitive evaluation compared to the existing method.
