One of the five Elizabethan anthologies of ‘Englished’ Italian songs, Thomas Watson’s 1590 Italian Madrigalls Englished (IME) presents itself as a selection of madrigals – almost all by Marenzio – with texts that do not strictly translate the original lyrics yet remain equally suitable to the music they underlay. Contrary to earlier studies of the IME, this article argues that Watson’s contrafacta, while indeed far from faithful translations, in fact remain deeply invested in the appropriation and subversion of the madrigals’ original verse. Most crucially, the IME carefully naturalises Marenzio’s pastoral landscapes – originally meant to evoke the Roman milieu of the composer’s patron – by repopulating this Arcadia with prominent Elizabethans and recognisable characters drawn from Watson’s own poetry. His contrafacta equally engage with the madrigals’ representation of characteristic formal elements of Italian verse, to prove not only the English language’s capacity to assimilate foreign prosody but also the Italian madrigal’s capacity to accommodate native English rhythms. Ultimately, the IME seeks to prove that English verse is equally suitable to being sung to the period’s most prestigious secular compositions, that the madrigal is equally capable of evoking a musical Arcadia in Elizabethan England.
In sixteenth-century France, the viol emerged as a symbol of cultural refinement enjoyed by men of virtue and as a tool to shape bourgeois leisure to reflect noble ideals of a moral and virtuous life. Viols appeared at the French court alongside the transalpine migration of artists, artisans and musicians, the acquisition of prized Italian string instruments and the recruitment of the luthier Gaspar Duiffoprugcar, master of the latest innovations in Italian instrument building. Learning to play viol and lute became essential for the education of nobles because of the belief that they could elevate the soul through the emulation of the ratios present in musica mundana. Philibert Jambe de Fer, in one of the first French music treatises, affirms that by the middle of the century viols were played by both the aristocracy and the bourgeoisie when he claims it is ‘an instrument with which gentlemen, merchants and other men of virtue pass their time’. For the bourgeoisie – the targeted readership of the earliest published tutors – luthiers, musicians and religious reformers founded music schools to teach lute and viol under a moral philosophy aimed at limiting the idle time of urban youths through humanistic and religious curricula.
A gap of several decades existed between the first sung performances of trouvère melodies and the earliest surviving songbooks to collect them in notation. A thriving culture of written and notated song grew up in parallel to the unquestionably oral culture driving the trouvère tradition. This article traces the vestiges of that written culture through surviving sources. Empty staves and absent music demonstrate the existence of lost notated sources and reveal their relationship to surviving songbooks. The case studies, taken from thirteenth-century trouvère sources, take part in a recent scholarly trend towards revisiting written transmission. The article drives this trend forward by distinguishing notated transmission from written transmission in text-only sources. The continuing existence of vernacular songs in notation, including many unique melodies, was only possible thanks to lost manuscripts. The article points the way towards further research into notated song culture and new bodies of evidence.
The most sensational event of the year 609 in Rome was the conversion of a unique pagan temple, the Pantheon, into a church dedicated to ‘blessed Mary ever virgin and all the martyrs’. The conversion required the permission of the emperor, a lustration, deposition of contact relics and the celebration of Mass. The chant formulary for a dedication Mass, beginning with the introit Terribilis est, is first associated with the anniversary (13 May) of this event. I believe that it was composed by the papal schola cantorum specifically for the rededication of the Pantheon. This dating has implications for the history of Western liturgical chant. The noted chant scholar James McKinnon claimed that such a ‘properised’ chant formulary was characteristic of a project undertaken by the schola in the late seventh century to reorganise the entire chant repertoire. If the Terribilis est formulary can be credibly dated more than a half century earlier, this scenario would appear questionable.
