This article examines how EU labour-law standards influence labour-related compliance beyond EU territory, despite the predominantly territorial character of public enforcement. It addresses the mismatch between the EU's state-centred enforcement framework and the transnational organisation of production, in which labour risks frequently arise in third-country supply chains. The aim of the article is to conceptualise ``external reach'' and to assess the main channels through which EU labour-related expectations operate outside the Union. Methodologically, the article combines doctrinal analysis with conceptual clarification and applies this framework to the case of Vietnam. It identifies three principal channels of external reach: labour provisions in EU trade agreements, outward-facing EU secondary legislation, and non-state or hybrid governance mechanisms, including contractual clauses, audits, and soft-law standards. The findings show that trade-related mechanisms are relatively effective in encouraging formal legal reform and regulatory dialogue, but have limited direct impact at workplace level. By contrast, market-facing mechanisms, especially due diligence obligations and private governance tools, more directly affect supplier behaviour, although they also risk procedural compliance, cost shifting, and weak accountability.
The rapid advancement and widespread accessibility of drone technology have significantly transformed aerial photography, enabling individuals and organisations to capture images and videos with ease and affordability. While drone photography offers benefits in journalism, mapping, disaster management, and commercial services, it also raises legal concerns relating to land ownership, airspace rights, trespass, nuisance, and privacy. In many jurisdictions, existing legal frameworks were developed prior to unmanned aerial vehicles and struggle to address the regulatory challenges posed by drones. This study examines the legal implications of drone photography from the perspective of land law and privacy protection, with reference to Malaysia and selected comparative jurisdictions. It analyses how traditional land law principles, including the ad coelum doctrine, interact with modern drone regulations and evolving privacy concerns. Using a doctrinal legal research approach, the study evaluates statutes, regulatory instruments, and judicial decisions to assess current responses to low-altitude airspace, property rights, and privacy. The findings identify a regulatory gap between aviation safety requirements and civil liability, property, and privacy protection. The article contributes by proposing a four-factor doctrinal framework altitude, purpose, landowner consent, and compliance with Civil Aviation Authority of Malaysia regulations for assessing drone trespass, while comparative analysis highlights regulatory approaches that may inform a more coherent Malaysian framework.
The digital transformation of Gulf insurance intermediation creates difficulties applying anti-money laundering (AML) rules where customer assessment, transaction processing, and compliance decisions are materially automated. This study examines how Omani law allocates criminal and administrative responsibility for money laundering in automated digital insurance brokerage, using Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) as functional comparators and the European Union (EU) as a supranational benchmark for preventive regulation and systems governance. A doctrinal-comparative methodology analyses AML legislation, penal provisions, electronic-insurance regulation, digital-governance instruments, and publicly accessible judicial and supervisory materials through a qualitative comparative matrix. Three interconnected gaps emerge: a definitional gap from placing conventional and materially automated intermediaries within similar regulatory categories; an evidentiary gap, because existing record duties are not designed to reconstruct an automated decision where the awareness standards of Article 6 of Royal Decree No. 30/2016 must be established; and an attribution gap, because Article 10 of that Law, read with Article 21 of the Penal Law, locates responsibility in identifiable natural persons. A documented search for 2016–2025 identified general AML enforcement in the Omani insurance sector, including four Capital Market Authority warning decisions in December 2023, and no publicly accessible measure concerning algorithmic facilitation. The study concludes that Oman provides formal regulatory coverage while lacking technological specificity, contributing the Proximity Paradox and Algorithmic Fiduciary Duty as analytical frameworks and a drafted provision, Article 42-bis, separating administrative responsibility for automated AML systems from the proof required for criminal liability.
The Saudi Civil Transactions Law (CTL) contains materiality-related standards that apply at different phases of the contract life cycle as separate doctrines rather than as an overarching doctrine. Article 74 uses a counterfactual analysis of partial invalidity and severability, while Articles 95 and 107 address the characteristics or purposes of contractual performance and the consequences of non-performance. The difficulty is not a conflict between Articles 74 and 107, but the absence of a unified analytical model for assessing the significance of non-performance under provisions on performance, interpretation, defect, and remedy. This article addresses these fragmented CTL elements and contends that contractual aim should serve as the main functional standard for evaluating the significance of performance and violation without broadening Article 74 beyond its legal framework. The research employs doctrinal, analytical, and functional comparative techniques, examining the CTL, pertinent Saudi property laws, Hanbali and Hanafi legal principles, selected Gulf civil-law systems, and FIDIC provisions as primary functional comparators, with the UNIDROIT Principles and CISG as secondary international references. Published Saudi precedents are limited, making the analysis prospective. Materiality is dynamic and should be assessed according to contractual intent, economic consequences, possibility of remedy, proportionality of norms, and allocation of evidence. Delay is significant when it affects the critical path and main goal. The article establishes the Materiality Saudi Materiality Framework, a six-step Quadrant for systematic judicial and arbitral assessment of domestic and international disputes, endorsing consistent remedies, limiting disproportionate termination, and guiding contract drafting.
Legal protections for teachers in student disciplinary cases are increasingly urgent. This study investigates the legal protections afforded to teachers in managing student disciplinary cases in Indonesia and Malaysia, highlighting how legislative frameworks, sociocultural influences, and institutional mechanisms shape teachers' rights and responsibilities. Using a comparative legal approach, the research analyzes statutory provisions, policy directives, and educational practices in both jurisdictions. The comparison indicates that Malaysia offers a more institutionally structured framework by defining school-level disciplinary authority and separating authorized disciplinary measures from individual teacher discretion. This framework balances educator autonomy with student rights, although gaps remain in enforcement and legal support mechanisms. Conversely, Indonesia's strong child protection laws prioritize student welfare but often conflict with teachers' authority, creating legal uncertainty and discouraging strict disciplinary measures. Both nations face a shared challenge of ensuring that child protection frameworks do not compromise teachers' rights and responsibilities. The study recommends clearer legislative provisions, enhanced legal support systems, systematic training, and stronger collaboration between schools and legal institutions to foster a more equitable disciplinary system. The novelty of this research lies in its cross-jurisdictional comparative legal analysis, moving beyond previous studies that focus solely on child rights or teacher professionalism. By integrating legislative and institutional perspectives, it demonstrates how legal protections for teachers can be reinforced without diminishing guarantees of children's rights, contributing to a more balanced legal discourse in education.
