The remarkably accurate representation of coastlines on late mediaeval portolan charts has garnered significant scholarly interest in uncovering the origin of their spatial data, with the prevailing hypothesis suggesting that they are authentic products of their time, created by synthesising numerous shipborne bearing and distance measurements. The pursuit of those answers also prompted the establishment and advancement of a cartometric approach, through which they can be attained with quantitative accuracy. This study is based on cartometric analyses and historical evidence, providing a comprehensive examination of the anonymous Carta Riccardiana portolan chart, presumably created by Pietro Vesconte between 1300 and 1325. It posits a paradigm shift regarding the late mediaeval origin hypothesis, tangibly indicating that the conventional geometry of portolan charts was likely developed by late mediaeval copyist-cartographers who utilised regional maps from classical antiquity, originally made in the projection of Marinus of Tyre calibrated to their mid-latitudes as inputs, which they partially scaled and gradually tilted, using a map in Ptolemy's first projection as a reference model. Concurrently, the article provides a historical overview of the most significant cartometric studies in the field, critically analysing their unique systemic parameters that have influenced various hypotheses regarding the origin of portolan charts – specifically, the systemically induced similarity with the modern map in the Mercator projection, which is, in the case of the Carta Riccardiana, at least, a misleading notion.
The Max-Planck-Institut für Aeronomie located in Katlenburg-Lindau, Germany, had a clearly defined beginning and end. It commenced on 1 January 1958 with the merging of the Max-Planck-Institut für Ionosphärenforschung (ionospheric research) and the Max-Planck-Institut für Physik der Stratosphäre (physics of the stratosphere), and it concluded in 2004 with its renaming as Max-Planck-Institut für Sonnensystemforschung (solar system research – MPS). This manuscript reviews the organization, scientific research, and development that took place over these 47 years.
Otto von Guericke was the first who experimentally demonstrated cloud formation by expanding and cooling of compressed air before 1663. Scientists initially grappled with the very question of why clouds float. Early explanations were hampered by limited theory, imprecise instruments, and gaps in meteorological knowledge. First attempts for distinguishing various cloud types arose towards the end of the 18th century. A key turning point came in 1803 when Howard proposed a first systematic scheme using Latin terminology for different cloud types. This effort laid the cornerstone for what would evolve into today's internationally recognized cloud classification system. The path to accurate understanding was long and iterative; early laboratory work and imprecise instruments produced repeated misjudgements that endured for decades. Manned balloon ascents provided direct measurements of meteorological parameters in the free atmosphere and in clouds, but more reliable and bias-free instruments and advances in theory were necessary to achieve reliable results. Additional techniques had to be developed to determine cloud altitudes and track their motion, gaining knowledge of vertical temperature and moisture profiles that shape different cloud types. Beginning in the 1890s, large-scale movements in the upper atmosphere were recognised by coordinated international observations. Contemporary early cloud atlases were published despite the limitations of low-contrast, poor photographs. Alternatives, like paintings or cloud watercolours, were even used to overcome these early hurdles. Coordinated observations using daily pilot balloons, kites, and later weather aircraft allowed researchers to further explain cloud formation both in stable and unstable atmospheric conditions. In addition, stratospheric and mesospheric clouds were discovered. After many efforts to publish international and national cloud atlases the World Meteorological Organization's founding in 1951 enabled the first modern International Cloud Atlas in 1956, standardising cloud observation practices and nomenclature.
This article examines the foundational role of Cevat Eyup Ta & scedil;man (1893-1956), Turkiye's first petroleum geologist, by analyzing how his higher education in the United States and his professional experience with international oil companies established him as essential "critical human capital" for the Republic. Drawing on archival documents and primary sources, the study focuses on the period from his initial involvement in 1929 until his death in 1956. It structures his contributions around four foundational pillars that transformed the national oil enterprise: the technical-scientific pillar, established through systematic field research and global publications; the institutional pillar, realized by founding and leading national exploration bodies; the legal-regulatory pillar, marked by his pivotal role in drafting Petroleum Law No. 6326 (1954); and the intellectual-public pillar, demonstrated by his leadership in professional societies and public pedagogy. The research repositions Tasman not only as a technical expert but also as a "public intellectual" who consistently aligned scientific knowledge with national development objectives. Accordingly, his legacy is assessed through these four pillars, which together underscore his enduring influence on Turkiye's quest for energy independence.
