This paper presents the outcomes of nonlinear static pushover and time history analyses, using both recorded and simulated ground motion signals, on 3D finite element macro-models of four buildings representative of Bagan's monumental heritage: Myin-pya-gu (1493), Zan-thi (east) (558), Tha-mu-ti-hpaya (844), and Kya-zin-hpaya (1219). The simulations are validated against the observed seismic damage in the 1975 and 2016 earthquakes. The results of the nonlinear finite element method (NLFEM) analyses are complemented by seismic rocking analysis conducted on nonstructural elements, such as spires, through nonlinear kinematic analysis. Analytical estimates of acceleration levels capable of causing shear failure in spires are provided, focusing on elements with a slenderness ratio that makes them vulnerable to shearing rather than rocking (i.e. flexure-controlled) failure modes. A comparative assessment of seismic performance is presented for the four buildings, highlighting the influence of plan symmetry and vertical continuity. These attributes are proposed as key criteria for selecting appropriate retrofit schemes to protect Bagan's monuments against future seismic events.
