Spatial skills refer to the ability to orient oneself in space and to interpret and reason about relationships between objects in space. Beyond day-to-day functioning, they play a role in success in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM). Children born preterm often show weaker spatial skills than term-born peers, but findings across individual studies have not previously been synthesised. This meta-analysis quantified differences in spatial skills between these two groups. 62 case-control studies were included, comprising 9,325 participants (preterm n = 5,146; term-born n = 4,179) aged between 3 and 202 months across 21 countries reporting 165 effect sizes. A medium effect was observed for the difference in performance on spatial skill tasks between preterm and term-born participants ( g = −.489, SE = .0368). Degree of prematurity significantly moderated this effect, with a graded increase in the magnitude of difference as prematurity increased; extremely preterm ( g = −.658, SE = .084), very preterm ( g = −.447, SE = .096), and moderate-to-late preterm ( g = −.335, SE = .105). Neither age, gender nor spatial skill type (i.e., intrinsic, extrinsic, spatial memory) yielded a statistically significant result. Overall, results of the present review indicate that preterm birth is associated with weaker spatial skills when compared to term-born peers, with the magnitude of this difference increasing with greater prematurity. This difference is evident in both males and females and persists with age. These findings clarify the magnitude of spatial skill differences following preterm birth and may inform targeted educational supports to promote later academic outcomes.
The propensity to trust is thought to change across the lifespan and has been hypothesized to differ between sexes. However, the existing literature is inconclusive regarding age- and sex-related associations with trust toward others. We sought to specifically investigate age and sex differences in initial trust toward unknown others and in trust in repeated interactions with human and computer partners who either behaved trustworthy or untrustworthy. In the current study, cross-sectional data of six projects were pooled and included 304 participants aged 13–58 years (51% female). Initial trust toward a human partner showed a quadratic association with age. No age-related effect was observed for computer partners. During repeated interactions, older age was associated with more pronounced reductions in trust toward untrustworthy partners. No age effect was found for trust toward a trustworthy partner. Sex was unrelated to levels of trust in all analyses. Limitations of the study are the cross-sectional nature of the data, highlighting the need for longitudinal research to better understand developmental changes in trust.
Parenting is shaped by expectations encountered in everyday life, yet less is known about how parents interpret and respond to these expectations within specific cultural contexts. Guided by Bronfenbrenner and Morris's Process–Person–Context–Time framework, this study examined how parents in Singapore, where educational achievement and parental involvement are strongly emphasized, understood parenting expectations, experienced them in daily family life, and responded to them. Twenty-five parents of primary school-aged children participated in semi-structured interviews, which were analyzed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA). Parents described expectations as embedded in everyday interactions with schools, family members, and other parents. Expectations centered on early preparation for children's futures and visible parental effort, contributing to time strain, gendered responsibility, and social comparison. Parents responded by making independent parenting decisions, limiting exposure to external pressures, and redefining good parenting. The findings show that parenting expectations are actively interpreted and negotiated within this sociocultural context.
Identity formation remains a central topic in developmental psychology, yet there is limited clarity regarding how this construct has been operationalized and measured across Eriksonian and neo-Eriksonian traditions. This scoping review maps the operationalization and measurement of identity formation in adolescence and emerging adulthood by examining empirical studies that developed or evaluated instruments grounded in these perspectives. Thirteen operationalizations and eighteen measurement instruments were identified and categorized into identity processes, outcomes, and impacts. All instruments reported evidence of reliability and criterion validity, whereas other validity evidence was less consistent, including content (three), construct (sixteen), convergent (fifteen), and measurement invariance (nine). The findings indicate that identity formation is conceptualized through multiple interrelated constructs rather than a single unitary phenomenon, while remaining grounded in shared theoretical foundations derived from Erikson's and Marcia's work. This review provides an overview of the current measurement landscape and supports informed instrument selection for future research.
This study assessed the effectiveness of the “Friendship Program,” a psychosocial intervention designed to increase perceived social support and psychological resilience among elderly individuals in institutional settings in Jordan. Using a quasi-experimental pretest–posttest–follow-up design with a single experimental group, the study involved 27 elderly participants and 27 student volunteers trained in basic counseling and communication skills. The six-week program featured structured sessions based on social learning and cognitive-behavioral principles, designed to promote emotional expression, cognitive engagement, and interpersonal bonds. To evaluate changes in social support and psychological resilience, the Social Support Scale and the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale were administered at three different time points. The results indicated that participants experienced enhanced perceived social support and improved psychological resilience, supporting the program's effectiveness in fostering emotional well-being and resilience in older adults. The findings underscore the importance of integrating structured psychosocial interventions into geriatric care settings.
