Cross-section inference, the ability to visualize the two-dimensional shape resulting from slicing a three-dimensional object, is a foundational yet cognitively demanding spatial skill. It has been studied mainly in adults and young children, leaving middle childhood unexamined at scale. This study examined problem characteristics contributing to difficulty, developmental differences across Grades 4 to 6, and gender-related variation under varying cognitive demands. A sample of 1,339 Israeli children from Jewish and Arab educational sectors completed 29 multiple-choice problems varying in object complexity and cutting-plane orientation. Guessing was modeled directly through a guessing-adjusted link function, with testing session as a random effect. Beta regression explained 71% of the variance in problem difficulty, identifying oblique cutting planes, discontinuous cross-sections, shape mismatch, limited visibility of cutting lines, and competing visual distractors as significant predictors. Approximately half of the children performed at or below chance, yet errors were systematic rather than random, with 86% of errors reconstructing the object's external appearance rather than its internal structure. Mean accuracy rose from Grade 4 to Grade 6, but this rise was not separable from differences among the classes tested; individual and classroom differences exceeded grade-level variation. A significant gender × demand interaction showed that boys outperformed girls only on the most demanding problems. Across two school years, cross-section inference showed no reliable spontaneous development, while a small set of design features accounted for most variance in difficulty. The ability appears to wait on instruction rather than maturation, and these features identify concrete targets.
Phubbing is a prevalent behavior among adolescents, characterized by ignoring others while using mobile devices. To enhance prevention and intervention strategies for related issues, this study investigated 720 middle school students (M age =15.57, SD age = 1.10) to examine the associations between harsh parenting and adolescent phubbing behavior, focusing on the mediating role of depression and the moderating role of grit. The results showed that harsh parenting was positively associated with adolescents' phubbing behavior, and adolescent depression partially mediated the relationship between harsh parenting and adolescent phubbing behavior. Furthermore, grit moderated the relationship between harsh parenting and depression. Specifically, a significant positive correlation between harsh parenting and depression was observed among low-grit adolescents, while this correlation failed to reach statistical significance among high-grit adolescents. This study revealed potential correlational mechanisms linking harsh parenting and adolescent phubbing behavior. It expanded the research on phubbing at the individual level and highlighted the importance of families in promoting the healthy development of adolescents.
While attachment security is known to foster social competence, the mechanisms linking specific attachment dimensions to adolescent peer relationships remain underexplored. This study examined whether empathic concern (affective empathy) and perspective-taking (cognitive empathy) mediated the associations between attachment avoidance and anxiety in the maternal domain and peer relationship quality. A total of 912 late adolescents (550 females) completed the Experiences in Close Relationships-Relationship Structures Questionnaire (maternal domain), the Interpersonal Reactivity Index, and the Friendship Qualities Scale. Structural equation modeling showed that both attachment avoidance and attachment anxiety were negatively associated with peer relationship quality. Specifically, attachment avoidance was indirectly associated with poorer peer relationships through both lower empathic concern and lower perspective-taking. In contrast, attachment anxiety was indirectly associated with poorer peer relationships through lower empathic concern, but not through perspective-taking. These findings suggest that affective and cognitive empathy play distinct roles in linking adolescent attachment dimensions to peer relationship quality.
