Background: The ethnobotanical heritage of Pakistan’s Soone Valley is extensive, but the extent of study conducted on the flavonoid composition of native plants is limited. Aim: This study was undertaken to investigate the total flavonoid content (TFC) of five medicinal plant species – Peganum harmala, Dalbergia sissoo, Moringa oleifera, Melia azedarach and Acacia modesta. Setting: The study was conducted in the Soone Valley located in Khushab District, Punjab, Pakistan, from five different locations – Khabeki, Ucchali, Kanhatti Garden, Khura and Jhallar, during 2022–2023. Methods: The plants were chosen for their widespread availability in the Soone Valley and their significant role in traditional ethnomedicine. They were dried before a methanol extraction was used to obtain the flavonoids present in the plants. Data were descriptively summarised and analysed for spatial variability using analysis of variance, correlation and heat map visualisations. Results: Variability existed in the amounts of flavonoids among the species studied as well as among the locations from which the plants were obtained. Acacia modesta produced the highest overall TFC among the species studied. Moringa oleifera exhibited the lowest overall TFC values. Strong site-dependent correlations were observed in the mean values across the five sites with respect to the TFC values of the medicinal plants. Conclusion: Acacia modesta and D. sissoo represent a source of rich flavonoid production with potential pharmacological properties. Contribution: This study is the first systematic report on the spatial distribution of flavonoids in medicinal plants in the Soone Valley and provides a scientific foundation for the ethnomedicinal applications of these plants.
Background: Medicinal plants are indispensable to global health care, cultural heritage and pharmaceutical innovation, yet their survival is increasingly threatened by habitat destruction, overharvesting and climate change. Aim: This review critically examines both in situ and ex situ conservation strategies, highlighting their principles, applications, limitations and complementarities. Setting: In situ methods preserve evolutionary and ecological dynamics within natural habitats, while ex situ approaches provide genetic safeguarding and research opportunities through seed banks, botanical gardens, tissue culture and cryopreservation. Method: This review integrates peer-reviewed literature, institutional reports, case studies and expert observations from 2000 to 2024. Results: Case studies from Asia and Africa illustrate successful conservation models integrating local knowledge and community participation. However, each method faces significant challenges, including land-use conflict, technical limitations, loss of genetic diversity and weak enforcement. Conclusion: The review argues for integrated conservation frameworks that synergise both approaches and leverage modern tools such as genomic technologies, geographic information system and DNA barcoding. Contribution: It underscores the urgency of policy reform, capacity building, sustainable funding and equitable benefit sharing to ensure the long-term survival and sustainable use of medicinal plant resources.
Background: The use of synthetic antihelminthic agents is often associated with adverse side effects and increasing drug resistance. These challenges have intensified the search for safer and more effective plant-based bioactive agents. Aim: To evaluate and compare the in vitro antihelminthic efficacy of the leaves, stem and root barks of Cassia alata. Setting: This study was designed to validate the folkloric application of C. alata as an antihelminthic agent. Methods: Crude ethanol extracts of the plants’ leaves, stem and root barks were prepared and subjected to phytochemical screening. Extract concentrations (25 mg/mL, 50 mg/mL and 100 mg/mL) were tested in vitro against Pheretima posthuma by measuring paralysis and death times. Mebendazole (MBZ) (15 mg/mL) served as the reference drug. Results: Phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of tannins, alkaloids, saponins and flavonoids. The root bark showed the lowest activity overall; however, at 50 mg/mL and 100 mg/mL, it produced significantly (p 0.05) shorter paralysis times (23.02 ± 1.61 min and 14.00 ± 2.61 min, respectively) than MBZ (32.00 ± 0.82 min). Only the 100 mg/mL root extract achieved a significantly (p 0.05) shorter death time (57.67 ± 1.71 min) compared to MBZ (110.33 ± 1.70 min). In contrast, the leaf and stem bark extracts outperformed MBZ, producing significantly (p 0.05) shorter paralysis and death times at all tested concentrations. Conclusion: Cassia alata exhibits notable antihelminthic activity. Contribution: The study highlights Cassia alata as a promising plant-based treatment for helminth infections.
Background: Planococcus ficus Ben-Dov (vine mealybug) is an economically important pest that causes significant damage to grapevines. The insect has evolved different strategies of escaping synthetic insecticides. However, high diffusibility and cuticular penetration of plant-based insecticides have made these survival strategies ineffective, thereby predisposing the insects to early mortality. Aim: This study reviewed literature on plant-based products that were screened for pest repellence and insecticidal properties with a view to exploiting their biogenic principles to minimise agricultural losses caused by vine mealybug infestation. Setting: Related publications were sourced from Google Scholar, ScienceDirect and Web of Science databases using relevant keywords. Eligibility of the articles selected for review was determined based on their titles and abstracts, methods and materials, language (English) and year of publication (2012–2025). Method: A total of 103 scientific articles published in English in peer-reviewed journals, three conference papers, one book chapter and seven websites were used for the review. Articles with restricted access and incomplete information were excluded. Results: Evidence from the literature suggests that plant-based chemicals from species of Azadirachta indica, Citrus aurantium, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Calotropis procera, Cardamine hirsute, Terminalia chebula, which exhibited a wide range of proven insecticidal properties, could be exploited to control mealybug infestation. Conclusion: The development of new formulations from botanical ingredients with proven insecticidal properties will be beneficial to grapevine farmers amidst the quest to overcome pest resistance and expand the profit margins for small-scale and commercial farmers. Contribution: Botanical pesticides are viable options for controlling the grapevine mealybug population to prevent depleting agricultural production.
