This is anOpe Société Française pour l’Étude des Lipides (SFEL) celebrates its 80th anniversary this year 2023. Its current legal form dates from September 8, 2011 according to the statutes signed by Anne LE GUILLOU its then President and Alain RANCUREL its Treasurer. Its current purpose is to “bring together specialists in the production, processing and use of oils, fats and derivatives in order to promote the acquisition and extension of knowledge in these branches of industry, to establish and maintain friendly relations between the members of the association”. It also aims to award the Chevreul Medal created in 1963 in memory of the creator of fat chemistry who lived and worked for many years in this magnificent place where we are currently the Verniquet amphitheater ofMuséum national d’Histoire naturelle in Paris. It was also in 2011 that SFEL joined 66 rue La Boétie in Paris in the premises of the Fédération Nationale des Industries des Corps Gras (FNCG). From 2011 to date, the following people have been involved in the life of the association: – As Presidents: Philippe GUESNET since 2021, Frédéric FINE (2019–2020), Michel LINDER (2017–2018), Fabrice TURON (2015–2016), Pierre VILLENEUVE (2012–2014) and Anne LE GUILLOU (2009–2012); – As General Secretary: Claire BERTON-CARABIN currently and since 2019, Claire BOURLIEU-LACANAL (2016–2018), Elmira ARAB-TEHRANY (2017), Michel LINDER (2015–2016), Anne LEGUILLOU (2013–2014), and Jean-Claude ICART (2008–2012); – As Treasurer: Bernadette DELPLANQUE (2019–2023) linchpin of the current Chevreul days with Philippe GUESNET (2017–2018), and Alain RANCUREL (2003–2016) true memory of our association. All in all, a happy collaboration of researchers, academics, teachers, business executives, technical and interprofessional centers in the lipids and fats sector. The highlight of this period 2011–2023 was undoubtedly the 2017 Congress of Nancy “Lipids & Brain, Lipids in Alzheimer disease” organized by the team of Michel LINDER of the University of Lorraine on a theme of great scientific and practical interest, with a public conference given by Stephan CUNNANE Chevreul Medalist 2017 in the sumptuous and prestigious setting of the major salons of the City Hall of Nancy overlooking Place Stanislas. Also “Lipids & Brain” 2015, 2011, 2007 in Paris organized by the respective teams with the Chevreul Medals attributed to Michael CRAWFORD (2015), Nicolas BAZAN (2011) and Stanley RAPOPORT (2007). Before 2011 and since 1973, the name of SFEL was Association Française pour l’Étude des Corps Gras (AFECG). Its purpose was to bring together specialists in the study and manufacture of fats and derivatives, with a view to promoting knowledge of scientific or technical problems of general interest in these branches of industry, and to establish and maintain all friendly relations between members. It can therefore be seen that at the time the object was focused on the industrial sector since its origin, it was only in 2011 that the field of production was explicitly integrated into the object. The AFECG was hosted by the Fédération Nationale des Industries des Corps Gras (FNCG) at 118 avenue Achille Peretti in Neuilly. The successive Presidents of this period have been successively: – Jacques SOULIER (1991–1992) University of Perpignan; – François LOURY (1993–1994) Cargill Company; – François MORDRET (1995–1997) Institut des Corps Gras ITERG; – Georges VERMEERSCH (1997–1998) Sofiprotéol; – Michel PARMENTIER (1999–2000) University of Lorraine; – Jean-Luc PERRIN (2001–2002) Astra Calvé; – André POUZET (2003–2005) CETIOM which has since become Terres Inovia; – Alain HUERTAS (2005–2007) LESIEUR; – Bernadette DELPLANQUE (2008–2009) University of Saclay; – Anne LE GUILLOU (2009–2012) Danone; In this period 1990–2011 the loyalty of the other animators is to be emphasized: – Paule POTTIER, Astra Calvé General Secretary from 1989 to 1998; – Jean-Claude BARRUET, General Secretary from 1999 to 2007; – Jean-Claude ICART, OCL General Secretary from 2008 to 2012;
India has been one of the largest producers of oilseeds in the world. Correspondingly, the oilseed sector occupies an important position in the agricultural economy of the country. Oilseeds, especially edible oilseeds, have been an integral part of the cropping system in India till the beginning of monoculture triggered by the implementation of a new agriculture strategy since 1960s. This paper evaluates the cropping pattern of oilseed diversity in the Thar Desert of Rajasthan at district level. This paper also highlights the development programmes launched by state and central governments to promote oilseeds production in dry region of the state. Many statistical techniques are used, for instance, Herfindahl Index, Entropy Index, and Composite Entropy Index, to examine the diversification and specialization in oilseeds.
Vegetable oils extracted from seeds and oleaginous fruits are a substantial source of bioactive compounds. In this study, oils of some fruit by-products were investigated and their composition and properties were compared. Apricot (ASO), melon (MSO), and watermelon (WSO) seed oils were extracted by cold pressing. The physico-chemical parameters and the contents of pigments were assessed using standard methods. The values of the physico-chemical parameters revealed the purity of the oils and it was recorded that the WSO has the best contents of chlorophylls and carotenoids, which were 12.43 ± 0.71 mg/kg of oil, and 1.35 ± 0.02 mg equivalent of β-carotene/g oil, respectively. In addition, the oils were analyzed by gas chromatography and their major fatty acids were linoleic, oleic, palmitic, and stearic. The ASO revealed the highest antioxidant activity in the quenching of 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) with inhibition percentage of 89.2 ± 2.3 after 30 minutes of contact. Likewise, the oils were explored for the fortification of margarine. The physicochemical parameters of the formulated margarines comply with the standards. The Rancimat test showed that the highest induction time (16.54 h) was assigned to margarine enriched with 150 μg/g of WSO. Hence, this oil can has numerous applications in other food industries.
Neurons have a high energy need, requiring a continuous supply of glucose from the blood. Tight regulation of glucose metabolism in response to stimuli is essential for brain physiology. Glucose metabolism and cerebral blood flow are closely coordinated during neuronal activity to maintain proper brain function. Glucose uptake across the blood-brain barrier is facilitated by a carrier protein: the GLUT-1 transporter. The first way the body meets urgent demand for glucose is to increase the blood flow through vasodilatory responses generated by nitric oxide. If that is insufficient, the second way is to increase the density of GLUT-1 through the translocation of this transporter from intracellular stores. The third pathway is to increase GLUT-1 synthesis by stimulating SLC2A1 (GLUT-1 gene) transcription. A tandem of two key molecules, free estradiol and DHA, is involved in this critical regulation. Their relationship is synergistic and reciprocal: free estradiol with genomic and non-genomic actions via ERα, and DHA via the PPARα-RXRα and PPARɣ-RXRα heterodimers. We highlight several original mechanisms linking two main principles (neuronal stimulation and brain energy metabolism) with the fundamental roles played by DHA and free estradiol. In particular, it has been shown that from a certain level of chronic DHA deficiency, a permanent imbalance sets in with disturbances in glucose intake and brain metabolism. This DHA deficiency is an aggravating factor in some neuropathologies.
As there is a lack of regulations on pesticide levels in crude oils, this study aimed to evaluate transfer factors for extrapolating concentration limits established for maize kernels to the crude oils extracted from their germs. Maize kernels were spiked with 4 organophosphates insecticides (chlorpyriphos, chlorpyriphos-methyl, fenitrothion, pirimiphos-methyl), 2 pyrethroids (cypermethrin and deltamethrin) and a pyrethroid synergist, piperonyl butoxide (PB) targeting a dose of 1 mg/kg grain. The kernels were transformed in a pilot starch-mill to separate the germs (wet-milling) then these germs underwent an oil extraction process in a mini-pilot comprising a thermal conditioning stage, a mechanical extraction followed by a solvent extraction and a desolventization-toasting stage for the meal. Analyses were carried out by gas chromatography coupled to MS/MS detector. The pesticides content was measured on kernels, spiked kernels, germ, crude oil and meal. Surprisingly, a significant difference in behavior was observed between organophosphates and pyrethroids in the transition from grain to germ. For the former, the applied pesticides were recovered at levels between 48% and 81% in the germ, compared to only 9–11% for the latter and 31% for PB. It has been shown by means of acetonitrile washing on spiked seeds that the pyrethroids remained bound to the hydrophobic cuticle of the grains. On the other hand, from the germ to the oil, the initial hypothesis of an almost total transfer of the pesticides in the fat fraction of the material was confirmed. The germ to meal concentration ratios were on average 0.019, 0.065 and 0.109 for organophosphates, PB and pyrethroids respectively. In the same order, the concentration ratios between germ and crude oil were 1.87, 1.98 and 2.17. Grain to final oil transfer factors ranged from 7.4 to 12.7 for organophosphates, 4.8 for PB and 1.4 and 1.7 for cypermethrin and deltamethrin respectively.
The purpose of this investigation was to examine the antibacterial activity of oil derived from Ailanthus excelsa (Roxb) as well as the chemical composition of seed oil and the proximate analysis of oil cake. The oil content of the seeds is ∼ 17%. The seed oil was analyzed using GC-MS/FID, and the results showed that it contained a variety of fatty acids, such as linoleic acid, oleic acid, and palmitic acid. When employed with 100 µL, the oil did not demonstrate any antibacterial activity against the bacteria Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhi, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Bacillus subtilis. The oil does not possess any antifungal action against Candida albicans and Aspergillus flavus. The oil cake is rich in protein and minerals. These findings imply that A. excelsa seed oil and oil cake have the potential to be used in the food and pharmaceutical industries after ascertaining its non-toxic nature and absence of antinutrients. The oil is not having antibacterial activity hence it can be used as a part of nutrient media for bacterial cultures.
Ethiopia is investing in Oil Palm cultivation to minimize palm oil imports from other countries. Our aim was to analyze the potential land suitability for oil palm tree cultivation by using geospatial technology with an analytical hierarchy process (AHP) in the Jejeba watershed, Western Ethiopia. Ten parameters such as, land use land cover (LULC), land surface temperature (LST), agro-ecological zone (AEZ), slope, rainfall, soil types, soil texture, soil drainage, soil depth and road were aggregated and reclassified according to their suitability to evaluate potential land for oil palm cultivation in the study. In the presnt study, ArcGIS 10.3, ERDAS 2015, and ArcSWAT software were used. Results show that about 36.7 km(2) (1.3%) was highly suitable for palm oil cultivation. Consiquentially,1780.5 km(2) (64.8%) was moderately suitable for oil palm cultivation whereas, about 25.2 km2 (0.9%) of the study area was not suitable for oil palm cultivation. The southeastern part was highly suitable, whereas some eastern and northern parts of the study area were not suitable for oil palm cultivation. Therefore, government and non-governmental organizations should raise awareness among local communities to support oil palm cultivation in the study area. Further studies should be carried out, especially on the importance of soil PH, aspect, and proximity to markets should be investigated to understand the most suitable areas for Oil Palm cultivation in the western parts of Ethiopia.
The first web conference on sunflower–pollinator interactions gathered the international community around a major topic for sunflower productivity and ecosystemic biodiversity. Insect-mediated pollination is important for increasing sunflower seed yield, but is dependent on environmental factors. Climate change can impact sunflower-pollinator interactions by influencing both plant and pollinator behavior. Natural or artificially elevated ambient temperatures appear to accelerate floret development and advance the timing of pollen presentation to coincide with pollinator activities. Drought showed no major effect on morphological traits such anther or corolla length, but dramatically reduced nectar and pollen productions. Flavonol-glycoside conjugates lower head transpiration thereby mitigating deleterious effects of abiotic stresses. Wild pollinators show fine scale preferences among sunflower varieties, likely due to the different resource focus of wild and managed honeybees. Agricultural practices such as planting flower strips to provide nesting sites for wild pollinators, or supplementing crop plots with hives, can have a positive effect on insect-mediated pollination efficiency and ensure optimal yields. All together, recent results on sunflower–pollinator interactions pave the way to develop varieties and corresponding cropping systems more favorable to pollinator biodiversity while maintaining high yields in the context of climate change.
Michel Eugène Chevreul entered at 17 the laboratory of Vauquelin, at the Museum. He began his investigations on animal fats in 1811. They appear as yet the most complete and the best executed experiments found in all chemistry. For the first time, he combined fractional solution, crystallization, distillation, melting point determination, and ultimate analysis. All started with the isolation of an acid and solid substance, “margaric acid”, the first of a long list of fatty acids isolated from various fats. Studying saponification, he determined that “anhydrous glycerine” was combining with water. After studying human gallstones, he discovered “cholesterine” (cholesterol). From whale spermaceti, he described “cetin” (mainly cetyl palmitate), containing no glycerol. He isolated from sheep fat a new acid he named “stearic acid”. This component was proposed in a joint patent by Chevreul and Gay-Lussac (1825) for the fabrication of very efficient candles. He discovered several volatile fatty acids in cow and goat butter (from C4 to C10). His master work ( Recherches chimiques sur les corps gras d’origine animale, 1823b ) contains his experimental procedures and his theoretical conclusions on the nature of fats, it may be considered as the first treatise on lipochemistry.
Rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) crop can be a lever for the development of oilseed sector in Morocco due to its adaptation to local conditions and its major economic and food importance. Genetic diversity and selection of valuable crossing parents are the key to successful breeding and improvement of this crop. In this regard, genetic variation within the existing germplasm must be explored and characterized. Therefore, the present study was carried out to investigate the genetic diversity among 22 varieties from Morocco as well as other origins, using twenty ISSR primers. The selected primers have generated a total of 319 markers. Polymorphic amplified bands varied from 8 to18, with an average of 13 per primer. The diversity index (PIC value) ranged from 0.295 to 0.509, with a mean value of 0.37 per primer, indicating a good genetic diversity level for the primers used. The average similarity coefficient was 0.31, fluctuating between 0.176 and 0.456, and the pairwise comparison of the studied varieties showed a great discriminating power of primers and a large genetic diversity among accessions. A total of eight ISSR primers could be identified as key to rapeseed varietal determination. Hierarchical classification allowed identifying three groups with some phylogeographic structuring. This is the first report of molecular characterization of rapeseed germplasm in Morocco and Africa. The obtained results have important implications for management of this germplasm to conserve the existing genetic diversity and use it properly in breeding programs in Morocco as well as in other Mediterranean and African countries.
Under condition of oxidative stress, free radical-catalyzed peroxidation of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and adrenic acid (AdA) generates in vivo neuroprostanes (NeuroPs) and dihomo-isoprostanes (dihomo-IsoPs), among a large number of key products participating in many pathophysiological processes. These non-enzymatic oxygenated metabolites display a wide range of biological actions (especially DHA-metabolites), and some of them are now considered as the most reliable indicators of oxidative stress in neurogenerative, neurodevelopmental or cardiovascular diseases. In this review, we will present an overview regarding neuroprostanes and dihomo-isoprostanes and discuss about their biological interests.
Labor shortages are increasingly problematic in rural areas worldwide and, in particular, in the oil palm sector in Colombia. Therefore, alternative methods and systems that increase labor productivity, such as using machines for collecting and lifting fresh fruit bunches (FFB), are needed. In oil palm cultivation, the most labor-intensive process is harvesting. We aimed to assess the labor productivity (in t · FFB/person/day) of three harvesting systems using mechanized lifting systems (harvest A: manual cutting, manual harvesting using meshes, carts, and livestock and lifting using a hydraulic arm; harvest B: manual cutting, manual harvest using a tractor, and lifting using a side-turning container; and harvest C: manual cutting, mechanized harvest using a tractor-grabber, and lifting using a side-turning container). Two bunch density scenarios were considered. Data were collected from adult palm crops in three oil palm plantations in the Eastern Plains of Colombia, and similar crop yields were obtained. Labor productivity was 1.20–2.53 t · FFB/person/day depending on the FFB density and the harvest system. Finally, the cost per ton harvested was $ 8.9–$ 16.6 per ton, being lower in the systems that demanded fewer personnel. The highest labor productivity and the lowest cost per ton harvested were obtained for harvest C.
The aims of this study were to cold-press mahaleb seed, and then fully characterize the oil to extent its food and functional food applications. The novelty of this study relies upon the first data provided by the thermal analysis, sensory analysis, and volatile aroma compounds composition. The seeds were pressed with a screw-type single-head press with a maximum oil exit temperature of 40 °C. Most common physico-chemical properties, composition analyses, volatile aroma compounds profile, sensory descriptive analysis and consumer tests were completed. The main properties were appropriate and the composition (fatty acids, phytosterols and tocopherols) data concurred with the available literature. Thermal data were provided, and the oil peak crystallization and melting temperatures were −44.45 °C and −8.41 °C, respectively. There were 38 volatile aroma compounds quantified mostly with almond, green, vanillin, woody, and fermented aroma definitions. The panel described the oil with 5 sensory descriptive (almond, vanillin, dough, green, cooling) terms. Consumers liked appearance the most (4.49) with a general acceptance score of 3.70 on a 5-point hedonic scale. Overall, the mahaleb seed oil is a conjugated linolenic, oleic and linoleic fatty acids, β-sitosterol and γ-tocopherol rich, very aromatic, and consumer-liked sample. Further studies with various food applications are foreseen.
Choosing suitable varieties and manipulating plant population are crucial management aspects in any cropping system that goals to improve yield, quality and the balance between plant demand and environmental resource availability. A two-year field experiment was conducted at Tehran, Iran, in a split plot design and replicated thrice to examine the effect of the planting density (low, moderate and high) on ten cotton genotypes. In term of lint yield and among the cotton genotypes G8 (1269 kg · ha −1 ), G4 (1263 kg · ha −1 ), G1 (1239 kg · ha −1 ) and G2 (1123 kg · ha −1 ) were statistically at par with each other but significantly superior to G7 (914 kg · ha −1 ) and G9 (936 kg · ha −1 ). Lint yield in high plant density (1386 kg · ha −1 ) was found to be remarkably superior over medium and low plant density (1029 and 890 kg · ha −1 , respectively) by average of 25.7% and 35.7%, respectively. Cotton genotypes at low plant density had higher boll plant −1 (6.46% and 15.3%, respectively), lint percentage (5.8% and 12%, respectively) and lint strength (0.6% and 1.9%, respectively) compared to moderate and high plant densities. The genotypes cultivated at high plant density produced higher seed and lint yield, higher lint elasticity and lower seed oil content, lint length and lint quality index. Based on this experiment, it is concluded that high seed cotton yield can be achieved at high plant density while higher lint quality can be yielded at low plant density.
Growing a second food, fodder or bioenergy crop during the fallow period commonly refers to sequential double cropping or relay cropping practices, as a function of sowing date (following or within the primary crop, respectively). Such practice may generate an additional income while supplying support and regulation services. As such, it could be referred as a form of ecologically intensive agriculture but also an opportunity offered by climate change. The decision-making process in the adoption of double cropping relies on many factors related to soil and climate conditions, but also on profit expectation and risk perception. The CASDAR project “3C2A: Three crops in two years” (2019–2023) strived to create references for sequential double cropping in the South-West of France, which encompasses the regions of Nouvelle-Aquitaine and Occitanie. The project focused mainly on grain crops and raised the interest of the use of oil-protein crops such as soybean ( Glycine max (L.) Merrill) and sunflower ( Helianthus annuus L.) for such practice. As a preliminary contribution of 3C2A project, this paper aims at illustrating the potential interest of soybean and sunflower as double crops in the South-West of France through a qualitative analysis of farmers’ perceptions about the risks and opportunities of double-cropping completed by a 4-years on-farm evaluation of agronomic and economic performances of this practice (110 fields).
In this study, Asphodelus tenuifolius (ATO) seeds oils were extracted by three different extraction methods, namely Soxhlet extraction (SE), microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) and ultrasonic-assisted extraction (UAE). The physicochemical properties, fatty acids, sterols, tocols, total phenol content and antioxidant activity of ATO seed were examined and compared. The best extraction yield was from SE (21.97 ± 0.01%), followed by MAE (19.28 ± 0.13%) while that of UAE was the lowest (16.5 ± 0.1%). Analysis of the chemical composition of these oils showed that linoleic acid and β -sitosterol were the main fatty acid and sterol compounds, respectively. A large amount of fatty acids and sterols were not significantly affected by the three extraction methods. Nevertheless, the tocols, the total phenols contents and the antioxidant power showed a variation between these three extracted oils. Based on these results, it was found that this specie has great potential for industrial use.
The objectives of the current study were to determine the usefulness of sequential path analysis in camelina to obtain information about the relationship between yield and yield components and to evaluate their relative importance in camelina oil yield under summer and winter cultivation. A split-plot design, with two varieties as the main plot and four sowing times as the subplot, was carried out over two growing seasons (2017–2019) in Samsun, Turkey. Sequential path analysis revealed that, as first-order predictors, grain yield and oil content displayed the most significant and positive direct effects on oil yield in both summer and winter cultivation. The sequential path analysis of second-order variables over the first-order variable revealed that seed number per pod and pod number explained approximately 90% of the variation of the grain yield in summer cultivation and branch number explained approximately 67% of the variation grain yield in winter cultivation. These results indicated that grain yield, as a main predictor of oil yield, had different pathways to affect oil yield in the summer and winter seasons. A higher magnitude of seed number per pod compared to pod number in this study indicated that selecting for higher grain yield can be done indirectly using plants with lower pod number and higher seed number per pod in the summer season. Moreover, branch number was the only trait that had a direct negative effect on grain yield in the winter season, indicating that plants with lower branch number should be selected for higher grain yield. Different environmental factors, including the seasonal cultivation of camelina in this study, were found to be a key factor in improving oil yield and, hence, should be considered as criteria indices in camelina breeding programs in the future.
This is anOpe Soybean is the major protein and oilseed crop of the world, which is utilized for the production of livestock feed, numerous food components, and non-food products. In 2021, world soybean production has reached an all-time-high with a global planting area of over 129million hectares. While Brazil and the United States were growing 39 and 34.9mio ha, respectively, the European soybean production area was about 5.5mio ha, of which only about 900 000 ha were grown in the European Union (FAOSTAT, 2023). This topical issue ofOCL on soybean is devoted to relevant questions related to production, breeding, processing, and feeding. In 11 different contributions, the issue provides insights into specific soybean cases discussed at present. The rapid expansion of soybean production in Brazil during the last 30 years is illustrated in terms of geography, yield increase, land protection, and economic importance (Cattelan and Dall’Agnol, 2018); increased soybean production in Brazil is closely associated with increased meat production both in Brazil and world-wide. In contrast, European Union soybean production (Debaeke et al., 2022) is evaluated in the light of its heavy dependency on overseas meal imports for feeding; the study demonstrates that only under a best-case scenario involving reduced meat consumption and thus increased arable land availability, soybean imports could be reduced to 15% by the year 2050. In Central European countries such as Germany, Austria or Switzerland, organic soybean production is gaining in importance. For Switzerland, Klaiss et al. (2020) take a look at the needs of organic soybean production such as weed competitiveness; they identified soy-food production as a main market driver, and they summarized practical organic soybean production guidelines. For simulating soybean production in Iran, crop modelling was implemented by utilizing model parameters from regional experimental results, which revealed potential yields in the range of 1.8 to 4.7 t ha 1 under Iranian growing conditions (Nehbandani et al., 2020). Genetic differences in soybean root architecture traits are of interest both to select for increased di-nitrogen fixation per unit area as well as for drought tolerance, but reliable and high-throughput imaging methods are required for appropriate
Quantitative information on the concurrent changes in major rumen microbial functions induced by dietary lipids in relation with the degree of unsaturation of fatty acids is scarce. During a three-period essay (9 days per period), rapeseed ( Brassica napus L., RO), sunflower ( Helianthus annuus L., SO) and linseed ( Linum usitatissimum L., LO) oils at the high level of 80 g/kg dry matter input (DMI) and a control without oil were compared in four 1-L dual outflow fermenters inoculated with bovine rumen microbiota and maintained on a maize silage-based diet. Neither the fermentation medium pH and redox potential nor starch and protein degradabilities were significantly altered. Oil supply significantly decreased butyrate and methane specific productions of to the benefit of propionate and hydrogen specific productions and decreased the microbial protein outflow and synthesis efficiency while increasing the outflows of ammonia and isovalerate, these effects being amplified by the fatty acids’ unsaturation degree. Besides, with no impact of the degree of unsaturation, oil supply increased the amount of fermented hexose, the productions of all SCFAs except butyrate and the specific production of acetate. The rumen variables apparently sensitive to oil unsaturation degree were thus related either to metabolic hydrogen removal pathways or to protein metabolism.
The present study evaluates the consequences of a change in pig and poultry protein nutrition through compound feed over time in France, on raw materials consumption, economic performances, and environmental impacts. It has been conducted using the “Prospective Aliments” model by Céréopa, which applies the principles of linear programming at a national scale (France). The study is based on a prospective approach. A decrease of 1 and 2 percentage points in pig and poultry feed crude protein (CP) content is applied (CP-1 or CP-2, respectively). As a consequence, consumptions of raw materials for total French compound feed production change drastically, by using rapeseed meals, over soybean meals (−425 000 t for CP-2) and sunflower meals, and including more grains, with maize replacing wheat. This shows that the feed CP content of commercial feed can be decreased at a national scale, yielding significant environmental benefits. This raises the question of developing an incentive-based policy to absorb potential over costs.
