This study explores the potential for rehabilitating the main colonnaded street in Palmyra, Syria, following the extensive damage caused during the ISIS occupation from 2015 to 2017. It focuses on the Arch of Triumph and the Tetrapylon as key symbols within the architectural landscape, highlighting their cultural significance. The findings reveal that the Arch of Triumph, contrary to prior beliefs, was not completely destroyed; substantial architectural elements remain intact. Historical documentation of the arch’s restoration has been gathered, providing a foundation for its partial reconstruction using surviving remnants and available digital records. Additionally, it is important to note that fifteen columns of the Tetrapylon were modern replicas created in the 1963. This shifts the discussion around authenticity in restoration. This research thoroughly examines global perspectives on reconstruction, covering traditional views that raise concerns about fabrication and contemporary interpretations that recognize restoration as a vital component of cultural resilience. It advocates a balanced methodology that will prioritize the conservation of existing elements, employ 3D documentation, clearly distinguish between original and recreated components, and include the meticulous recording of all stages of future interventions. Given these insights, the study advocates a restoration strategy that thoughtfully addresses themes of memory and identity while revitalizing Palmyra’s cultural significance. Such an approach, by acknowledging its difficult history, will not only honor the past but also position Palmyra as an important global example of effective post-conflict cultural management.
A scientific re-examination of the horned helmets from Viksø enabled the age of the organic material inside the horn openings to be determined using radiocarbon dating, establishing a terminus ante quem for the active use of the helmets before 906–850 cal BCE. Microscopic and organic analyses of the organic substance revealed two distinct layers. The black substance that filled the horn opening was determined to be birch tar obtained by the per descensum process. It was also found to be present at the joints inside the helmet. We believe the brown fibrous structure to be raffia, an organic material that may have been used to secure any decorative elements that were glued into the openings. A source-critical comparison of Late Bronze Age birch tar products highlights the originality of its use for the construction and decoration of high-status ritual artefacts. The various uses of birch bark tar in the manufacture of the Viksø helmets illustrate the link between the production technology of tar and its areas of application in the Late Bronze Age, and attest to the specialised knowledge required in the production of adhesives. Since awareness of the relationship between material quality and technology is a driving force in the establishment of trade networks, this study includes a state-of-the-art catalogue of Scandinavian tar finds from the Bronze Age as well as an in-depth analysis of the use of adhesives in southern Scandinavia to identify potential future research directions.
The megalithic funerary monuments of Menjez (Akkar, northern Lebanon), dated to the Late Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age, display a remarkable architectural diversity that reflects a localized process of innovation within the Levant. Conducted as part of the Swiss-Polish MEG-A project funded by the Swiss National Science Foundation and Narodowe Centrum Nauki – titled “First megalith builders in the Northern Levant” (2022–2026) (202350–2020/39/I/HS3/02993), this study focuses on 42 tombs documented across the area. It combines a detailed morpho-typological analysis with the examination of technical principles and the restitution of building practices through the reconstruction of chaînes opératoires and architectural phasing. By identifying architectural patterns and reconstructing the sequence of building steps, this research aims to characterize the Levantine megalithic building techniques applied by the communities of Menjez. Special attention is given to the articulation between technical choices, construction processes, and transformations these monuments underwent over time. The results contribute to a better understanding of megalithic building traditions in the Levant and offer new perspectives on the technical knowledge, organizational strategies, and cultural logics that shaped funerary architecture from the fifth to the third millennia BCE.
The stoneware ‘Ogame’ (“large jar”) produced in Hizen Province, Kyushu, during Japan’s Edo period (1603–1868) served diverse domestic and mortuary functions, from storing water, soy sauce, and fertilizer to containing human remains in burial contexts. Previous scholars have suggested that key historical developments, including the Qing Dynasty ‘sea ban’ (1647–1684) and the rise of mass-produced porcelain in Hizen, contributed to increasing morphological standardization in both porcelain and stoneware. However, no prior morphometric study has tested this hypothesis for Ogame jars. This study applies two-dimensional, outline-based Geometric Morphometrics (GMM) and machine learning-based ‘Random Forest’ classification to assess shape variability in a dataset of 243 jars from kiln and mortuary contexts across Hizen and Chikuzen Provinces (present day Saga and Fukuoka prefectures). Results show (1) a statistically significant negative trend in within-stage dispersion across the Edo period, and (2) a pronounced morphological divergence between mortuary and kiln-associated jars. These findings reveal how Edo-period Ogame shape was influenced by temporal processes of standardization and context-specific demands for mortuary and domestic use. By integrating quantitative morphometric tools with machine learning classification, this exploratory study provides a replicable framework for investigating shape change in historical ceramics with limited chronological resolution.
The focus of this paper is a group of anthropomorphic vessels found at sites in Western Anatolia dating to the Early Bronze Age I-II. The most striking shared feature is the presence of so-called earplugs in relief on both sides of their necks. To date, no visual evidence has been found to confirm that these artifacts were utilized as earplugs. We suggest that they are, in fact, a special type of earring and may have served to represent an unnamed deity or a member of the ruling class.
