This article examines conceptual and experimental issues related to the measurement and interpretation of the speed of light and their implications for the foundations of special relativity. The study includes analysis of all "unexpected" and "inexplicable" results of the most famous experiments related to the measurement of the speed of light, a re-examination of the arguments presented in Albert Einstein's paper "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies," and a discussion of ideas developed in the author's previous works. Based on this analysis, the paper outlines a conceptual framework termed the "Model of Uncertainty of the Universe." Within this framework, an alternative interpretation of the postulate of the invariance of the speed of light is proposed in relation to the conceptual foundations of the special theory of relativity. (c) 2026 Physics Essays Publication.
The propagation of light in a vacuum led to the hypothesis of the luminiferous aether as its medium. Early experiments by Bradley and Airy supported the idea that Earth moves relative to this aether. However, Michelson's experiment produced null results, challenging the hypothesis. His equations included the term c + v, where c is the speed of light and v is Earth's orbital velocity, contradicting the postulate that light speed is constant and unsurpassable. This article examines the limitations of Lorentz transformations in deriving the drag coefficient and introduces a modified Rayleigh interferometer. With improved fringe-shift sensitivity, the new design offers a potential method for detecting aether drift and reassessing foundational assumptions in physics. VC 2026 Physics Essays Publication. [http://dx.doi.org/10.4006/0836-1398-39.1.148]
We present a deterministic wave interference model to describe the mass distributions of fission fragments in heavy nuclei. Unlike conventional stochastic approaches, this model assumes that fission products originate at the interference maxima of recursively superimposed spherical wavefronts. Each wave is harmonically modulated with decreasing amplitudes, forming a fractal interference field. Localized maxima within this field correspond to preferred nucleation sites for fission products. The resulting one-dimensional projections reproduce characteristic yield curves observed for actinides such as U-235, Pu-239, and Th-232. An extended version of the model introduces asymmetric phase modulation and damping components to account for observed asymmetries and peak flattening. The resulting peak positions and shapes align well with empirical data from international nuclear databases. This interference-based framework provides a geometrically structured alternative to statistical models and suggests that fragment mass distributions may reflect intrinsic field symmetries rather than stochastic partitioning. (c) 2026 Physics Essays Publication. [http://dx.doi.org/10.4006/0836-1398-39.1.107]
This paper presents a semiclassical framework in which nuclear structure, stability, and decay arise from phase locking of internal electromagnetic motion within nucleons. Protons and neutrons are treated as nucleons possessing a common internal electromagnetic mode capable of synchronizing with neighboring nucleons when aligned in parallel. This constraint forces nuclei to self-organize into linear clusters of two, three, and four nucleons, with the four-nucleon p-n-p-n chain forming the smallest fully saturated unit. The framework reproduces the binding systematics of A = 2-4 nuclei, explains the absence of stable A =5 systems, and accounts for alpha clustering, saturation, neutron excess, and characteristic fission fragment patterns. Heavy nuclei emerge as networks of saturated four-nucleon clusters connected by weaker neutron-mediated links. The same phase-locking mechanism previously shown to govern atomic orbital quantization thus governs nuclear architecture across the chart of nuclides, without introducing new fundamental forces. VC 2026 Physics Essays Publication. [http://dx.doi.org/10.4006/0836-1398-39.1.135]
A key outcome of the 26th General Conference on Weights and Measures in 2018, which took effect on May 20, 2019, was the redefinition of the International System of Units. This redefinition established the exact values for two fundamental constants: (1) The unperturbed ground-state hyperfine transition frequency of the cesium-133 atom (Delta vCs) is precisely 9 192 631 770 Hz; 2. The Planck constant (h) is precisely 6.626 07015 x 10(-34)Js. These precise values mean that also the energy of the photons involved in the cesium atom's transition is now inherently fixed in any arbitrary local laboratory frame, just as is the case with universal constants for which precise values have been prescribed. Alongside systems of natural units, we regard this inherently fixed energy as the basis of the Energy-Universal Constants Principle (EUCP). The EUCP proposes that all physical quantities can be defined in terms of arbitrary reference energy and one or more universal constants, offering a unique and distinct way to define physical states for any arbitrary observer (real or imaginary) in any arbitrary local reference frame. (c) 2026 Physics Essays Publication. [http://dx.doi.org/10.4006/0836-1398-39.2.167]
The existing astrophysical paradigm asserts that cosmological expansion does not operate on gravitationally bound bodies. However, there is now considerable evidence that such expansion does occur within the Solar System. Seven quantitative estimates of "local" expansion phenomena suggest that H0, the mean (+/- 6) current value of the Hubble-Lema & imath;<^>tre parameter, is (49 +/- 11) (km/s)/Mpc. That is far lower than has been derived from analysis of the cosmic background radiation, i.e., H0 = (67.4 +/- 0.5) (km/s)/Mpc or the luminosity of type Ia supernovae, i.e., (73.04 +/- 1.04) (km/s)/Mpc. Furthermore, there are several other situations within the Solar System where precise values are less readily obtained, but there is some suggestion that H0 might also have a lower value. These findings, when considered alongside the large-scale "Hubble tension," may support the suggestion that H0 may be scale-dependent, although the physical origin of that effect is unclear. VC 2026 Physics Essays Publication.
This paper presents a theoretical model where quarks can exist at different energy levels that influence the internal resonance and coherence properties of nucleons. The model suggests that subtle resonance-based modulations at the subnucleonic level can give rise to atomic property variability beyond traditional isotope classification. These variations are not attributed to changes in quark flavor or mass but to differences in internal field coherence, dielectric response, and unifying-resonance coupling. Experimental implications include isotope anomalies, nuclear decay asymmetries, and subtle shifts in spectral or magnetic profiles. VC 2026 Physics Essays Publication.
This paper develops a phenomenological framework in which cosmological redshift is described by a cumulative motion kernel K(t) rather than the Friedmann-Lema & imath;<^>tre-Robertson-Walker scale factor a(t). The framework introduces no scattering or absorption, conserves photon number, and reproduces the three classical background tests of cosmology: the Hubble redshift law, the (1 +z) scaling of supernova time dilation, and the (1 +z)(-4) Tolman surface-brightness relation. Unlike tired-light hypotheses, which fail to predict time dilation, and unlike Milne's kinematic cosmology, which leaves surface-brightness scaling theoretically ambiguous, the present framework succeeds on all three counts. This makes it the first non-expansion model to match the full observational triplet that has historically distinguished expanding from static cosmologies. The key distinction is that K(t) is defined operationally from observational invariants rather than imposed as a metric parameter. The analysis shows that background observables do not uniquely require an expanding-space ontology, establishing an observational degeneracy in redshift, distance, and flux relations. The scope is deliberately limited to background-level tests, leaving the question of kernel dynamics for future work, but within this range, the framework provides a consistent and empirically grounded representation of cosmic phenomena. The contribution is methodological. It demonstrates that the same empirical laws can be formulated without invoking metric expansion, underscoring the underdetermination of cosmic ontology by background data. (c) 2026 Physics Essays Publication.
Here, a practical method is used to reanalyze the data from the black hole mergers, GW150914, and GW250114. Extensive publications have previously shown that these methods are consistent with gravitational observations. Here, the analyses were undertaken to determine the gravitational forces in the close proximity of binary black holes. By using the two sets of binary data of almost equal masses, these calculations are shown to be accurate. At the combined radius of 1.5(R-S1 +R-S2), the force of gravity for GW150914 is F'(g)=1.33 x 10(43) N, and for GW250114 is F'(g)=1.34 x 10(43) N, within narrow margins of error. Because of its accuracy at this particular radius, it is useful as a benchmark for further calculations. The analyses also give further information on the inspiral phase of the black holes and on the forces of gravity at various other radii based upon the observed frequency of the gravitational waves. These results also corroborate the maximal observed normalized amplitude and wave frequencies and the velocities of the individual black holes. These methods broaden the understanding and accessibility of black hole gravitational physics and their binary mergers. (c) 2026 Physics Essays Publication. [http://dx.doi.org/10.4006/0836-1398-39.2.174]
In this short article, we have tried to generalize Born's rule on the product of wave functions and applied it to the free particle solution of the Schro & euro;dinger equation. The interpretation of the result of this operation reveals that the electron has a four-dimensional Gaussian structure capable of moving as a stable wave pulse. Confirmation of the validity of this interpretation will assert that our universe has an extra space dimension, and the physics of this four-dimensional space is consistent with the quantum theory of three-dimensional space. Again, to have an understanding about the motion of the electron as a four-dimensional wave pulse, we attempt to rectify a longstanding misconception about the phase velocity of the matter wave and subsequently derive the de Broglie equation in a unique manner. VC 2026 Physics Essays Publication.
In the standard Copenhagen interpretation of Quantum Mechanics, the norm of the Schrodinger wave function is interpreted as the probability density of finding the particle at a certain small volume in space at a given time. This means that particle positions are very fuzzy and cannot be known until a position measurement is made. In the famous two-slit experiment, particles are emitted from a known source position and then are detected at definite screen positions, but the path any particle took to get to that detected position on the screen, in particular, which slit the particle went through to get to the detector, cannot be known. Such travel path questions are even regarded as illegitimate, since between position measurements the particle is said to behave not as a particle but as a wave, which is spread out through all available space without any particular defined position and without any defined path. It is only at the source point and at the points of detection that the particle can be said to have a position in the standard Copenhagen interpretation of Quantum Mechanics. This paper presents an alternative interpretation, and experiments to verify or disprove this interpretation are also presented. (c) 2026 Physics Essays Publication.
Relativity is reframed in an "object-centric" description that takes the object's Compton frequency as primary and treats observer-dependent kinematics as alternative decompositions of a single underlying motion. Compton and de Broglie wavelengths are treated as coupled consequences of motion in an expanding, globally four-dimensional hyperspherical cosmos. A fundamental quantum action step is assumed, so the discrete proper-time interval defines an intrinsic Compton stride, the distance an object is carried with the expanding cosmic hypersurface during each update. The de Broglie wavelength then arises as the relational projection of that same stride into coherent patterning along the locally three-dimensional hypersurface. The associated traveling-wave form, sourced on the past light cone, parallels the structure of free-space electromagnetic traveling fields, and in quasi-static limits naturally yields inverse-square behavior. Implications for intrinsic spin and zitterbewegung are outlined, and connections to entanglement are noted. A new ontological account of time is proposed. VC 2026 Physics Essays Publication.
The kinematics theory of balls studies the emission, propagation, and reflection of balls in accordance with Newtonian laws. The emission of balls is based on the physics phenomenon that the balls inherit the velocity of the source, in addition to the emitted velocity relative to the source. The ballistic law governs the propagation velocity of balls from the moment of emission and thereafter. It states that, in the absolute frame, the propagation velocity of balls is the vector sum of the velocity of the balls emitted by the source and the velocity of the source. At the limit, when the mass of the balls converges to zero, the ballistic law applies to the hypothetical massless ball. Unlike the balls with mass, the massless balls consume no energy as their source moves from rest to a constant velocity and have no momentum after emission; there are no action-reaction forces at emission and reflection. The reflection of balls by a wall is given for any incidence angle of the balls' velocity relative to the velocity of the wall and for any inclination of the wall, not just the case of two balls' reflection in an elastic frontal collision. A natural extension of this study is to include massless entities such as light. The kinematics of light explains and proves in each inertial frame where a source of light and a mirror are at rest, why the speed of light is the universal constant c of electromagnetic nature given by Maxwell's equations, why each law of physics has the same form, and why no experiment in such a frame can prove its motion. It also explains experiments and observations that have been misunderstood for more than a century because, at that time and afterward, there was insufficient knowledge of light behavior to explain them correctly. (c) 2026 Physics Essays Publication.
A new non-Archimedean approach to interacting quantum fields is presented. In the proposed approach, a field operator u(x; t) is no longer a standard tempered operator-valued distribution but a nonclassical operator-valued function. We prove using this novel approach that a quantum field theory with a Hamiltonian P(u )4 exists and that the corresponding C*-algebra of bounded observables satisfies all the Haag-Kastler axioms except for the Lorentz covariance. We prove that the k(u4)4 quantum field theory model is Lorentz covariant. In this paper, we consider a somewhat different hyperfinite cutoff theory, namely, the k: u44: theory in a periodic box. This gives a cutoff interaction that is translation invariant, and therefore, it is useful for the study of the vacuum state. In a hyperfinite interval, we prove that the total Hamiltonian is self-#-adjoint and has a complete set of normalizable eigenstates.
An October 2025 publication proved that the fundamental theorem of general mechanics is theoretically incompatible with general relativity. This article proves that the fundamental theorem of general mechanics is incompatible with well-known tests of gravity. Additionally, the gravitational time factor of general mechanics is shown to be inconsistent with tests of gravitational time dilation. This article also addresses criticisms of the October 2025 paper which were presented in a November 2025 paper. Graphs with measurable variables show that general mechanics does not make the same predictions as general relativity. (c) 2026 Physics Essays Publication.
The exponent of the inverse fine structure constant, exp alpha(-1), used in conjunction with various combinations of the neutron, proton, and electron masses, permits the calculation of Planck mass as m(PL) = root hc /G= 2:176 433 6(52) x 10(-8) kg, where Newton's gravitational constant is G = 6:674 305(32) x 10(-11) m(3) kg(--1) s(-2), in excellent agreement with the 2024 experimental and statistical data which give G = 6:674 30(15) x 10-(11) m(3) kg-(-1) s(-2). (c) 2026 Physics Essays
This paper discusses three issues (errors) with the general theory of relativity (Schwarzschild space-time). (a) The issue of two physically different interpretations of the gravitational redshift, which are the longitudinal Doppler effect and the transverse Doppler effect. (b) The issue of multiple lengths of a unit measuring rod. (c) The issue of the Schwarzschild surface, which is the event horizon of "reality" (where "reality" indicates reality in the physical theory) and which is also an apparent singularity that is able to be disregarded (on the desk) artificially. Here, new equations are derived by making a new assumption clearly that the space components of "reality" in the Schwarzschild space-time are a three-dimensional Euclidean space in polar coordinates with "r in the Schwarzschild metric" as the radius. This indicates a new interpretation of the Schwarzschild space-time, and the three issues (errors) are resolved, suggesting that the assumption is correct. The interpretation is made mainly based on the application of the time delay and Lorentz contraction in special relativity theory to a free-fall frame from infinity. Also in Einstein's original paper, "The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity" [A. Einstein, Ann. Phys. 354, 769 (1916)], in the latter half of its & sect;22 (in contradiction with the first half), a space corresponding to a three-dimensional Euclidean space of the radius r (polar coordinates) has been assumed in practice (actually) as space as reality, and a figure based on this assumption has been provided, where correct results such as the curvature of rays have been obtained. At that time, when applying special relativity theory, it is indicated that free-fall frames are not inertial frames because the speed of light is not c = constant in there. The length of the space radius component as "reality" is assumed to be only the length of the radius r. Therefore, the length of the space radius component in the local Lorentz frame instantaneously at rest in the Schwarzschild space-time and the other lengths due to general coordinate transformation are interpreted as mathematical lengths (numerical values) rather than lengths as "reality." Because the local Lorentz frame is a mathematical existence (which is not "reality"), the laws of physics mathematically hold there. By considering the expression for the (mathematical) energy of a mass point in free fall from infinity in this mathematical local Lorentz frame instantaneously at rest, a new equation for the potential energy in the Schwarzschild space-time has been derived. [In Appendix E, in the solar system, we find that for an observer in a free-fall frame from infinity, the oscillation of an arbitrary stationary space point on the radius owing to light coming from the surface of the sun, which is found because of a semi-transparent mirror tilted by 45 degrees relative to the radius, is always constant (the same color). This is because the oscillation (period and frequency) of the arbitrary stationary space point on the radius due to the coordinate time is constant (Appendix D). In Subsection 2 of Appendix G, it is explained that the four-dimensional lengths are theoretical (mathematical) rather than real lengths.] VC 2026 Physics Essays Publication. [http://dx.doi.org/10.4006/0836-1398-39.1.023]
This manuscript explores a novel hypothesis: That the speed of light (c), rather than being a fixed, observer-independent physical constant, may emerge from the perceptual and cognitive limitations of biological observers. While c is foundational in relativity and modern physics, its measurement is always mediated through instruments and interpreted via human perceptual frameworks. We propose that c represents the upper bound of information-processing speed in biological systems and may not be perceived identically across species with different sensory architectures. To test this, we outline a cross-species experimental design comparing human and fly neural responses to light pulses. Human responses will be recorded via Visual Evoked Potentials, while fly responses will be captured using calcium imaging or extracellular recordings. By accounting for species-specific neural latencies, the experiment aims to isolate whether both species register the same light-travel time. Controls include artificial high-speed sensors, variable environmental conditions, and additional species with divergent visual systems (e.g., mantis shrimp, cephalopods). A positive result-showing interspecies differences in perceived timing-would suggest that c is shaped, at least in part, by perceptual constraints. A null result may confirm c's universality, or alternatively, reflect the limitations of human-designed instrumentation to access nonhuman perceptual realities. This work has broad implications across physics, neuroscience, and the philosophy of perception. It invites a reconsideration of constants like c as potential perceptual boundaries rather than absolute limits and opens theoretical room for nonhuman or postbiological intelligences to experience physical laws differently. By linking perception and measurement, this hypothesis bridges disciplines and offers a testable framework for exploring the role of the observer in constructing physical reality. (c) 2026 Physics Essays Publication.
In the special theory of relativity, proper lengths of rods and rulers remain unaltered. However, noncomoving rods and rulers (appear to) contract along the line of movement. This contraction is asserted to be as real as any conceivable physical measurement that is made by the reference frame with respect to which the rods and rulers are moving. It is well recognized that the contraction is a result of a mismatch in synchronization of spatially separated clocks. The Ehrenfest paradox highlights the anomalies created by (apparent) length contraction that is real for the noncomoving frame yet nonexistent for the comoving frame. Ehrenfest, a reputed theoretical physicist of his times, himself did not offer a solution to the paradox, indicating that the paradox is a critique of the special relativity theory. There is no consensus on the resolution of the paradox except evasive ones such as the clocks on the circumference cannot be synchronized by any acceptable procedure or the impossibility of maintaining rigidity during the transition. The original paradox proposed by Ehrenfest envisaged contraction of the circumference. The counterview proposed by Einstein that the rulers on the circumference contracted, leading to a measurement of a larger circumference, only exasperates the paradox. Thus, the paradox remains unresolved, causing doubts about the maintainability of the theory of special relativity. The difficulties that preclude the possibility of an acceptable synchronization in the rotating frame lead to an impossibility of observing any reality, absolute or otherwise. This is because without synchronization of spatially separated clocks, it is not possible to measure the length of a moving rod. Since there must be a reality, absolute or otherwise, we suggest that there must be a synchronization that corresponds to reality. VC 2026 Physics Essays Publication.
