Driven by technologies such as 5G/6G, artificial intelligence, and cloud computing, system power and heat flux continue to rise. The limitations of traditional air-cooling technology are increasingly obvious. Historically, liquid cooling technology that replaces gas with liquid as the coolant has been practiced for centuries from automobile engines to Maxim machine gun. In modern times, with excellent heat transfer performance and energy-saving characteristics, it is of even greater importance and shows enormous application potential in data centers, 5G/6G base stations, new energy vehicles, and energy fields. As a critical medium for heat transfer, the thermophysical properties and electrical properties of coolant determine the cooling efficiency, energy consumption and safety of the system. However, current review studies on liquid cooling materials mostly lack a systematic review and summary of the molecular structure of liquid-cooled materials. Thus, this comprehensive review first outlines the main types and heat dissipation mechanisms of liquid cooling technologies in the past decade. It then takes the influence of molecular microstructure on performance as an entry point, focusing on summarizing the categories, properties, molecular structures, performance, technical solutions, and applications of coolants. It also analyzes factors affecting the cooling efficiency of the system and the economics of cooling technologies. On this basis, the Four-Factor Analysis Method for designing better liquid cooling materials is proposed. Thermal conductivity, viscosity, electrical conductivity, and freezing point are used as key elements in the guiding map for comparing and evaluating various coolants. Taking data centers as an example, the weights for this scenario are determined as thermal conductivity 0.338, viscosity 0.353, electrical conductivity 0.186, and freezing point 0.123. In addition, this review examines the application status and selection schemes of liquid cooling technologies in data centers, 5G base stations, new energy vehicles, and power transformers. The guiding role of the Four-Factor Method in practical applications and the future development trends for this technology are also discussed. Finally, this review should become the most-up-to-date comprehensive reference for designing next-generation coolants and technologies, and benefit the scientists and engineers working in this field.
Wearable personalised health monitoring requires advanced materials that combine biocompatibility, mechanical compliance, and stable signal transduction under dynamic physiological conditions. Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) hydrogels have emerged as a versatile materials platform due to their high-water content, tissue-like softness, and tunable chemical structure. Recent advances have enabled the transformation of PVA hydrogels into multifunctional conductive systems by incorporating nanofillers, conducting polymers, and ionic species, while maintaining structural integrity and hydration stability. This review critically examines current strategies for enhancing conductivity in PVA hydrogels, including network design, synergistic charge transport mechanisms, and scalable fabrication techniques. Their integration into wearable platforms is discussed across key applications, including strain and pressure sensing, electrophysiological monitoring (ECG, EMG, EEG), energy harvesting, and controlled drug delivery. Fundamental challenges, such as dehydration, electromechanical trade-offs, and scalability, are analysed alongside emerging solutions, including self-healing networks, antifreeze approaches, and sustainable composites. Importantly, this review highlights the need to couple materials innovation with standardised evaluation protocols and regulatory frameworks to ensure reproducibility, benchmarking, and clinical translation of PVA-based wearable bioelectronic systems.
The increasing demand for antibacterial and biocompatible materials in biomedical applications prompts the development of titanium-copper (Ti-Cu) alloys as promising candidates. These alloys attract wide attention due to their potent antibacterial activity against various bacteria. This study thoroughly reviews the antibacterial properties, biocompatibility, and corrosion performance of Ti-Cu alloys in different circumstances. The effects of copper content, processing routes, surface treatments, and other parameters on antibacterial efficacy, cytocompatibility, osseointegration, and corrosion resistance are analyzed. The investigation spans multiple length scales, examining factors from bulk alloy composition to microstructural features like intermetallic phases and their morphology, distribution, and surface characteristics including topography and wettability. Ultimately, the ongoing challenges associated with Ti-Cu biomedical alloys are critically evaluated, mapping out strategic research directions to fully harness their multifunctional capabilities.
Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) has emerged as one of the most practical and scalable technologies for fabricating large metal components. With high deposition rate and cost efficiency, WAAM is increasingly used in aerospace, marine, and other high-value industries. Conventional WAAM systems, based on commercial welding equipment and industrial robots, are limited in controlling material microstructure, mechanical properties, and geometric accuracy. As the demands for higher performance in fabricated parts continue to rise, process-oriented system innovations have become a key development trend. These modifications directly manipulate arc behaviour, wire feeding, thermal fields, and in-situ deformation, providing more effective regulation of molten pool dynamics and solidification patterns. Approaches such as multi-wire feeding, hybrid arc-laser configurations, external field assistance, and in-situ thermal or mechanical treatments have achieved improved structural uniformity, reduced defects, and higher deposition efficiency. Despite this rapid progress, the diversity and complexity of independently developed systems have led to a fragmented research landscape. This review synthesizes these innovations, evaluates their mechanisms and effectiveness, and maps them to key research objectives. It then provides critical insights of current research, discusses existing issues and highlights future opportunities to guide the development of high-performance, structurally reliable, and industrially deployable WAAM systems.
Turbine blades (TBs) are widely regarded as the “jewel in the crown” of modern aeroengines, operating under extremely high temperatures, pressures, and loads. Investment casting (IC) remains the primary manufacturing process for these critical components. However, the increasingly intricate geometries of modern TBs, characterized by thin walls, curvature, twist, and multi-cavity hollow structures, pose persistent challenges in dimensional accuracy, defect control, and microstructural consistency. This review presents a comprehensive overview of recent advances in TB IC from the perspectives of process mechanisms, modeling, and intelligent manufacturing. The fundamental mechanisms governing multiscale deformation and dimensional evolution across the entire IC workflow are systematically examined, including die compensation strategies, wax/shell behaviors, and thermomechanical interactions during directional solidification and subsequent constraint removal. Progress in modeling methodologies is then reviewed, with particular attention to geometric modeling fidelity, the roles of process parameters and boundary conditions, and the evolution of multiphysics fields associated with stress, deformation, and solidification. Furthermore, emerging intelligent manufacturing paradigms are discussed, highlighting artificial intelligence (AI) assisted technologies for predicting temperature fields, deformation, and defects in TB casting, together with the role of 3D printing in enabling rapid and flexible fabrication of sacrificial tooling to support advanced internal cooling architectures for next-generation aeroengines. Overall, this work provides a systematic synthesis of the current research progress in TB IC and offers a systematic reference for future studies in this field.
With the escalating demand for green and high-efficiency energy storage systems, renewable wood biomass has emerged as a promising candidate for sustainable functional materials preparation, attributed to its inherent hierarchical architecture and versatile chemical tunability. The macroscopic multiscale porous structure of wood biomass endows it with a natural three-dimensional (3D) framework, which favors ion transport and ensures mechanical robustness. Meanwhile, the microscopic lignocellulosic components (cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin) confer wood biomass designable chemical properties via hydroxyl/carbonyl functional groups and diverse carbonization pathways. This review focuses on the fabrication strategies and application prospects of wood-biomass-derived multifunctional energy storage materials. Firstly, the compositional characteristics and chemical properties of wood and its derivatives are elaborated. Subsequently, we systematically summarize the applications of various wood-derived components—including bark, leaves, trunks, branches, and derived polymers—in multiple energy storage systems, such as supercapacitors, sodium-ion batteries, lithium-ion batteries, lithium-sulfur batteries, hydrogen storage devices, and separators. Finally, the current challenges and future research directions are outlined to promote the in-depth integration of wood biomass into sustainable energy storage technologies.
Bio-based nanogenerators have emerged as promising power sources for next-generation self-powered wearable and biomedical systems; however, existing reviews largely focus on material catalogs or device demonstrations, with limited integration of structure-property relationships and sustainability metrics. This review presents an integrated and materials-centric analysis of biodegradable nanogenerators, with emphasis on the interdependence between molecular structure, crystallinity, dielectric properties, surface chemistry, and device-level performance. Advanced fabrication strategies, including electrospinning, interface modulation, additive manufacturing, and bio-waste valorization, are evaluated in terms of both performance enhancement and scalability. Sustainability is treated as a core design criterion rather than an afterthought, with integrated discussions on degradation kinetics, recyclability, life-cycle assessment, carbon footprint, and green synthesis routes using biomass-derived precursors and low-energy processing. The applicability of these principles is illustrated across a wide range of multidisciplinary domains, including smart textiles, wearable sensing platforms, implantable and therapeutic biomedical systems, and emerging intelligent technologies. By bridging materials design, device engineering, and circular-economy considerations, this review establishes a unified structure-property-performance-sustainability roadmap, providing actionable guidelines for the rational development of high-performance, eco-conscious bio-based nanogenerators.
Electrocatalysis is driven by the chemical nature of electrodes and their surfaces. Furthermore, the electrocatalytic activity and selectivity critically depend on the atomic surface arrangement of electrodes, characterized by facets and their crystallographic orientation, surface steps, and defects, i.e., the electrode surface structure. Over the past decades, single-crystal studies have provided fundamental insights into so-called structure–activity relationships, while nanoparticle systems have extended this knowledge toward industrial electrocatalysts. Yet, translating these insights into practical electrodes remains limited by the use of binders, supports, and surfactants, which mask active sites, compromise stability, and hinder reproducibility. This review provides a framework for the electrochemical restructuring of metal electrodes, emphasizing how electrochemical processes can generate nanostructured, binder-free, free-standing electrodes with tailored surface architectures. We critically evaluate restructuring strategies, including electrodeposition, potential cycling, anodic polarization, electrochemical dealloying, and particularly cathodic corrosion, reframing the latter not only as a degradation pathway but also as a versatile tool for fine-tuning metal surfaces and fabricating flexible electrodes. Fundamental insights into cathodic corrosion are discussed in detail, linking atomic-scale restructuring mechanisms with the emergence of features relevant for catalysis and electrocatalysis. We further address stability challenges, parameters influencing restructuring, and applications in electrocatalysis, including HER and OER, CO2 reduction, nitrate reduction, and electro-oxidation of small organic molecules as candidates for fuels in energy storage and conversion. This review bridges electrochemical surface science with engineering of electrode materials to provide a roadmap for advancing surface design in energy technology, electrochemical science, and sustainable catalysis.
The development of molybdenum disulfide (MoS2)-based solid lubricant coatings has evolved from simple thin films to sophisticated, adaptive systems engineered for extreme environments. This review systematically traces this paradigm shift, from fundamental deposition techniques to advanced microstructural engineering strategies. It begins with fabrication technologies, progressing from conventional sputtering to co-sputtering and high-power impulse magnetron sputtering, which enable unprecedented control over film density and structure. The core discussion focuses on material design strategies, including elemental doping (transition metals, noble metals, non-metals, and rare earths), nanocomposite architectures (e.g., transition metal dichalcogenide–carbon, transition metal dichalcogenide–ceramic), and nanoscale multilayer/laminated structures. These designs synergistically combine MoS2′s intrinsic low shear strength with enhanced mechanical integrity, oxidation resistance, and humidity tolerance. The review establishes clear structure–property–performance relationships, linking engineered microstructures to tribological outcomes through adaptive interfacial mechanisms such as shear-induced reorientation and tribofilm formation. Critical assessment of coating performance across vacuum, humid air, high-temperature, and radiation environments reveals environment-specific lubrication and degradation mechanisms. Finally, applications in aerospace, machining, and nuclear sectors are discussed alongside future perspectives on computationally guided, self-adaptive coating systems for next-generation extreme-service applications.
Organic electrode materials (OEMs) have shown great potential for various electrochemical energy storage applications (EESs) due to their high theoretical capacity, structure designability, environmental friendliness, and low cost. However, OEMs face several inherent challenges, such as low electronic conductivity and detrimental structural evolution. Here, 2D MXenes have shown enormous potential to solve the issues of OEMs owing to their metallic conductivity, abundant surface chemistry, and exceptional mechanical strength. Serving as a multifunctional conductive scaffold, MXene not only enhances the electronic conductivity of the MXene/OEMs composites to facilitate the electron/ion transport but also addresses electrochemical instability issues via physical/chemical interaction, thereby endowing the MXene/OEMs composites with improved electrochemical performance. This review offers a comprehensive examination of the advancements in MXene/OEMs composites for EESs. It introduces various strategies for combining MXene with different OEMs, including small-molecules/polymers, conducting polymers, metal–organic frameworks, and covalent organic frameworks, along with their structural characteristics. The discussion extends to the application of MXene/OEMs composites in various EESs, emphasizing the corresponding structure-performance relationships. Lastly, the review outlines the challenges and future perspectives for research on MXene/OEMs composites, aiming to provide a foundational reference for the development of advanced MXene/OEMs composites designed for high-performance EESs.
Hydrogel-based plant bioelectronics are emerging as promising platforms for real-time monitoring and modulation of plant physiology, stress responses, environmental interactions, and growth. Compared with rigid electrodes and conventional polymer films, hydrogels provide a soft, hydrated, conductive, and tunable interface that reduces mechanical mismatch with growing plant tissues while enabling electrochemical, electrophysiological, optical, and multimodal sensing. This review examines recent advances in hydrogel materials for plant bioelectronics, focusing on how network structure, design requirements, materials strategies including crosslinking chemistry, porosity, swelling, adhesion, conductivity, transparency, gas permeability, and biocompatibility affect plant-device performance. Applications in monitoring plant physiology, hormones, pH, moisture, glucose, and overall plant health are highlighted. Reported hydrogel systems exhibit Young’s moduli from ∼ 1 kPa to several MPa and ionic conductivities of 10−3-10−1 S cm−1. Several plant-interfacing devices sustain strains above 300 %, maintain stable electrical performance over 10,000 loading cycles, and support continuous growth monitoring for up to 14 days. Despite these advances, standardised evaluation under realistic agricultural conditions remains limited. Future research should prioritise standardised testing, biodegradable biomass-derived materials, multimodal sensing integration, and closed-loop bioelectronic systems to advance precision agriculture and bio-regenerative life-support applications.
Materials discovery is the linchpin to advance sustainable energy technologies, which mitigate resource scarcity and climate change. Establishing a carbon-neutral society relies heavily on the introduction of highly active and stable electrocatalysts for sustainable reaction engineering. In the current expression of high-throughput materials science, both high-throughput synthesis (HTS) and high-throughput characterization (HTC) are required to effectively cover an ever-increasing search space. HTS relies on combinatorial design and multimodal growth to overcome the constraints of traditional electrocatalyst fabrication. Concomitantly, HTC rapidly elucidates relationships between the composition, structure, and processing of electrocatalysts and their (multi-)functional properties, such as, activity, selectivity, and stability. In this review, we discuss emerging trends in high-throughput experimentation (HTE) to discover, design, and optimize electrocatalytically active materials for sustainable energy sources. We highlight the potential of individual HTS and HTC building blocks to be integrated into a holistic HTE workflow in conjunction with AI-driven feedback loops to truly accelerate the discovery process. Finally, we discuss future challenges and opportunities to improve the rational design strategy of electrocatalysts for sustainable energy sources based on integrated HTE workflows.
Implant-associated infection remains one of the leading causes of failure in orthopaedics, imposing substantial clinical and economic burdens despite advances in surgical techniques and antibiotic therapy. Conventional infection management strategies, including systemic antibiotics, local drug delivery, surface coatings, and physical surface modifications, primarily provide short-term protection. These approaches fail to deliver sustained antibacterial performance over the long service life expected for load-bearing implants. This review critically evaluates existing antibacterial strategies, highlighting their mechanisms, advantages, and translational limitations. Particular emphasis is placed on the fundamental shortcomings of surface-based approaches and external stimulus-responsive systems in long-term clinical scenarios. Building on these insights, the emerging paradigm of bulk antibacterial alloy design for infection-resistant implants is discussed. Copper, silver, and zinc are widely accepted antibacterial elements; however, they cannot be used as standalone bulk materials because they do not independently meet the mechanical, corrosion, and biocompatibility requirements of metallic implants. Among them, silver is limited by elution-driven activity and cytotoxicity concerns, zinc exhibits relatively weaker antibacterial efficacy, while copper offers a favorable balance of antibacterial performance, alloyability, and structural compatibility. Copper-, silver-, and zinc-containing alloy systems are systematically examined with respect to antibacterial efficacy, cytocompatibility, corrosion behavior, and mechanical integrity. Copper-added alloys, which offer broad-spectrum antibacterial activity through contact killing and controlled ion release while preserving structural performance when appropriately alloyed, are extensively discussed. Finally, future directions are outlined, including biodegradable antibacterial metals, multi-functional alloy design, and data-driven alloy optimisation strategies, providing a roadmap toward clinically viable, long-term infection-resistant implant materials.
Precise thermal management is vital for sustaining human physiological function and ensuring stable, energy-efficient operation of thermal systems. Spectrally engineered textiles (SETs) regulate temperature by selectively controlling solar absorption and infrared emission, thereby modulating solar heat gain and radiative heat loss. Recently, new SETs are emerging that require adaptive temperature regulation across diverse indoor and outdoor, hot and cold environments. Driven by their light weight and flexibility, applications are expanding beyond personal thermal management (PTM) to buildings and electronics. Consequently, spectral designs have grown increasingly complex, hindering integration and practical deployment. This review systematically summarizes recent spectral design strategies for SETs. First, it outlines the fundamentals of human thermoregulation and the physical mechanisms governing SET spectral response. Next, it surveys cooling and heating strategies across spectral bands, emphasizing material selection and structural design. The review highlights key trends in multifunctional SETs development, including dynamic spectral regulation, color functionality, and self-cleaning features. Finally, it discusses current challenges and future research directions to advance high-performance SETs.
The non-renewable nature of lithium and cobalt resources, along with their excessively high costs, makes lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) inherently unsuitable for grid-level energy storage. Due to the unique anion insertion chemistry, dual-ion batteries (DIBs) exhibit advantages such as high operating voltage, cost-effectiveness, and environmental friendliness. This positions DIBs as promising contenders in the post-lithium era, particularly for large-scale applications. Despite major breakthroughs in energy density and cycling stability, DIBs still face several critical challenges, including the development of high-performance, compatible electrode materials and efficient, durable electrolyte systems. This review provides a detailed overview and summary of the current research status, latest advancements, and future prospects for DIBs based on the design of novel electrode materials and electrolytes, with a focus on performance optimization to meet practical application standards. Furthermore, an in-depth analysis of the fundamental electrochemical principles governing the operation of DIBs is conducted. By integrating existing knowledge frameworks, we explore emerging concepts and innovative strategies aimed at addressing current limitations, thereby identifying key research directions for DIBs. It is anticipated that this review will inspire new concepts, ideas, and theories, accelerate the commercialization of low-cost, high-performance, sustainable DIBs, and provide robust support for large-scale energy storage applications.
Glass-forming ability (GFA) is a fundamental parameter in glass science and technology, as it defines how readily a liquid vitrifies rather than crystallizes. Due to the relevance of this issue, this critical review intends to provide a comprehensive assessment of GFA in inorganic, non-metallic systems, with emphasis on oxide glasses. To elucidate glass formation, both structural and kinetic theories are examined, highlighting that vitrification results from the competition between kinetics and thermodynamics. The critical cooling rate is analyzed as the primary quantitative descriptor of GFA, while its experimental limitations—particularly the influence of heterogeneous nucleation—are critically discussed. Structural approaches, from Zachariasen’s classical rules to modern topological and spectroscopic insights, are evaluated as complementary tools that rationalize compositional trends in GFA. The review further evaluates experimental and computational methodologies for GFA estimation, such as TTT/CCT diagrams, glass stability parameters, molecular dynamics, and machine learning. A central conclusion is that no single parameter universally predicts GFA; instead, a multivariate framework combining viscosity, thermodynamic parameters, structural features, and kinetic constraints is required. Key challenges remain, including: (i) the lack of reliable intrinsic experimental GFA measurements free from heterogeneities; (ii) limited data for multicomponent commercial glasses; (iii) unresolved questions regarding the correlation between kinetic fragility and GFA; and (iv) the need to unify structural and kinetic descriptors into predictive models. Future research should prioritize high-purity experimental techniques (e.g., containerless processing), systematic datasets for complex systems, and machine learning approaches to enable robust, composition–structure–property–GFA relationships and accelerate glass design.
Biosensors are widely used in biomedical detection and related fields. However, their performance in cryogenic environments is severely limited by material property changes, decreased biomolecular activity, and restricted signal transduction processes. This review systematically summarizes recent advances in cryobiosensors, focusing on three categories: chemical, optical, and mechanical biosensors. Primarily, we have provided a detailed explanation of the mechanisms by which cryogenic temperatures affect the performance of biosensors. Specifically, this includes the effects of reaction kinetics and the thermodynamics of molecular recognition, mass transfer and interfacial reaction rates, material phase behavior and structural stability, as well as signal transduction and readout processes. Subsequently, we deeply explore core strategies for achieving cryostability and optimizing sensing performance across various biosensor types. Key strategies include the utilization of antifreeze additives, biomolecular immobilization and modification engineering, material and structural optimization, and temperature compensation. Finally, we further discussed the challenges currently facing cryobiosensors in terms of long-term stability, adaptability to extreme cryogenic temperatures, detection of complex samples, and system-level integration. We emphasized that the focus of research is shifting from the development of single antifreeze materials toward integrated, collaborative innovation across the “materials-structures-systems” levels, with the aim of advancing cryobiosensors toward practical applications.
Ice accretion poses a critical threat to the safety and operational efficiency of aerospace, energy, and transportation systems. Conventional anti-icing and de-icing methods are plagued by low efficacy, excessive energy consumption, and inadequate long-term durability. This review comprehensively surveys bioinspired nano/micro-engineered anti-/de-icing surfaces, emphasizing multifunctional integration guided by nature and optimized by artificial intelligence. We systematically dissect the underlying physical mechanisms—including ice nucleation, surface wettability, and photothermal/electrothermal conversion—and examine representative natural anti-icing prototypes, such as insect compound eyes and wings, plant leaves, and animal skins, with quantitative design parameters extracted. Design strategies for photothermal surfaces (bioinspired composites, porous frameworks, low-dimensional materials) and electrothermal surfaces (graphene networks, metal nanowires, carbon-based systems) are critically evaluated. Multifunctional coupling systems—encompassing photothermal-electrothermal hybrids, photothermal-phase change composites, and ice-sensing —are discussed as viable routes toward all-weather, low-energy solutions. Durability enhancement strategies, including armor-like protection, multiscale reinforcement, and self-healing mechanisms, are systematically reviewed. Crucially, we introduce one of the first artificial intelligence-assisted design frameworks for anti-icing materials, integrating neural networks for structure-performance prediction, inverse design, multi-objective optimization, and a literature-mined database. Together, these advances establish a new paradigm for the data-driven, nature-inspired intelligent design of high-performance anti-icing and de-icing technologies.
Vacuum-ultraviolet (VUV, 100–200 nm) light sources are essential for semiconductor lithography, high-resolution spectroscopy, and emerging applications such as the 229Th nuclear clock. Their realization critically depends on nonlinear optical (NLO) materials capable of efficient frequency conversion, where phase-matching is a key requirement for VUV generation. Recent advances, including record-short birefringent-phase-matching at 158.9 nm in fluorooxoborates, full-wavelength phase-matching near 193 nm, twist-phase-matching in low-dimensional materials, and additional periodic phase engineering in conventional crystals, have significantly expanded the accessible design space for short-wavelength NLO frequency conversion. However, the relationships between crystal dimensionality, structural motifs, and phase matching mechanisms remain fragmented. In this Review, we establish a unified structure–dimension–mechanism–performance framework that connects crystal dimensionality with phase matching mechanisms and VUV performances. We systematically integrate birefringent-phase matching, quasi-phase-matching, additional periodic phase-phase-matching, and twist-phase-matching across bulk, superlattice, and low-dimensional systems. We further highlight how structural evolution and chemical modulation, particularly fluorination, enable simultaneous control of bandgap, anisotropy, and nonlinear response, thereby providing insight into current VUV phase-matching limits and pathways toward overcoming the 150 nm barrier.
With the rapid expansion of lithium-ion battery applications, efficient and sustainable recycling of spent ternary cathode materials has become an important pathway for resource circulation. Layered ternary cathodes represented by NCM/NCA are rich in critical metals such as Li, Ni, and Co, making them a major focus in battery recycling research. This review first summarizes the main failure mechanisms of spent ternary cathodes, including cation mixing, surface reconstruction, microcrack initiation and propagation, interfacial side reactions, and transition-metal dissolution. On this basis, direct-regeneration-based upcycling technologies are reviewed and categorized into four strategies: elemental doping, composition control, surface engineering, and single-crystal design. Elemental doping enhances bulk structural stability by suppressing cation mixing and lattice oxygen release; composition control overcomes the constraints imposed by the original stoichiometry and enables transformation into high-energy-density cathode systems; surface engineering stabilizes the cathode–electrolyte interface and improves Li+ transport kinetics; and single-crystal design suppresses crack formation by converting polycrystalline particles into structurally stable single-crystal particles. Finally, this paper further discusses the current challenges, including complex raw material composition, processes that do not meet low-carbon requirements, and inconsistent evaluation standards. This review clarifies the structure–failure–regeneration relationship and provides guidance for next-generation low-carbon upcycling technologies.
