Exosomes are naturally occurring nanovesicles (30–150nm) that serve as biological carriers for the targeted delivery of medicinal substances. Their membrane composition facilitates passage over physiological barriers, such as the blood-brain barrier, and offers good compatibility with bodily tissues. Using methods like electroporation, incubation, and donor-cell modification, therapeutic substances including medications, proteins, and genetic elements can be integrated into these vesicles. Selective contact with sick cells is enhanced by surface functionalization. By improving targeted medication delivery and lowering undesirable systemic exposure, these vesicles have demonstrated promise uses in the treatment of neurological diseases and cancer. Particle size, zeta potential, encapsulation efficiency, release kinetics, cellular uptake, stability, and targeting capability are all evaluated when characterizing exosome formulations. Notwithstanding these benefits, a number of challenges still exist, such as inconsistent isolation protocols, low loading efficiency, instability associated with storage, and challenges in large-scale production. Future applications of vesicle engineering and manufacturing technologies in precision-focused medicinal delivery systems may benefit from ongoing advancements in these fields.
Antiviral microspheres have emerged as multi-purpose platforms to overcome major disadvantages of traditional antiviral therapy such as short half-life, low bioavailability and frequent dosing. This review summarizes the existing evidence on formulation approaches, polymers, evaluation techniques and the key design parameters affecting the performance of antiviral microspheres via oral, ocular, parenteral and mucosal routes. Poly (lactic acid) (PLA) and poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) are synthetic biodegradable polymers that are widely used to formulate long-acting depots in which particle size, drug loading and degradation-controlled release are determined by polymer composition, molecular weight and processing conditions. Natural and modified polymers such as chitosan, thiolated chitosan and alginate provide mucoadhesive and pH responsive systems that enhance the residence time and control release at mucosal and ocular surfaces. Emulsion–solvent evaporation, ionic gelation, spray drying, and emerging microfluidic approaches provide a combination of fine control over microsphere size and architecture that modulates entrapment efficiency and biphasic release profiles desired for rapid onset followed by sustained antiviral exposure. The assessment has progressed from conventional physicochemical characterization (size, morphology, zeta potential, entrapment efficiency, in vitro release) to route-specific biopharmaceutical and antiviral evaluation (mucoadhesion, ex vivo permeation, pharmacokinetics and in vivo efficacy). These studies show that appropriately designed microspheres can increase gastric or ocular residence, increase systemic exposure after intramuscular or subcutaneous injection and improve local antiviral action at mucosal sites. However, heterogeneity in in vitro release conditions, mucosal models and antiviral assays limits comparability between studies and restricts the development of generalizable design rules. The review highlights polymer properties, drug-polymer interactions and process parameters as critical determinants of successful antiviral microsphere design, while pointing to gaps in systematic, Quality-by-Design (QbD) studies that link these variables to clinically relevant antiviral outcomes. In future work, to fully exploit the potential of microsphere technologies for existing and new antiviral agents, standardized testing protocols, mechanistic modeling and direct comparisons with alternative delivery systems should be emphasized.
The gut microbiota contributes significantly to the host metabolism control since it has a two-way communication with the pancreas to form the gut-pancreatic axis. The pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) include dysbiosis, loss of microbial diversity, and alterations in both significant taxa (ex: loss of SCFA-producer, such as Akkermansia muciniphila, Bifidobacterium, butyrate-producing Firmicutes; increased Mechanistically, gut-derived metabolites, such as short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), secondary bile acids, lipopolysaccharide (LPS), branched-chain amino acids (BCAA), and indole derivatives, contribute to the effects of the pancreatic b-cells, insulin secretion, glucagon regulation, and islet inflammation through the following pathways: activation of GPR41/43/109A, FXR/TGR5, endotoxemia via TLR4 Such changes support dysfunction of the b-cells, defective glucose-stimulated secretion of insulin, low-grade inflammation, and metabolic memory, and further contribute to the insulin resistance and autoimmune reactions in T1DM. The emerging evidence in human cohort and animal model studies and metagenomic studies points to the role of the axis in diabetic complications and post-pancreatitis diabetes. Probiotics, fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT), dietary fiber regulation, postbiotics and bacteriophage therapy may be applied in the restoration of microbial balance, the generation of SCFA, enhancement of barrier integrity, reduction of inflammation, and glycemic regulation in the preclinical and early clinical setting. Even though strain specificity, individualization and durability remain challenging, it is a promising axis of specific therapeutics of diabetes prevention and management. To apply these findings into effective clinical practice, the additional integration of multi-omics and massive trials are required in the future.
Skin disorders, including psoriasis, eczema, acne vulgaris, fungal infections, and chronic wounds, represent a significant global healthcare burden and often require long-term therapeutic management. Although conventional topical formulations such as creams, ointments, and gels are widely employed for the treatment of dermatological conditions, their therapeutic efficacy is frequently limited by poor skin penetration, inadequate drug retention, and low bioavailability. Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.), a medicinal plant extensively used in traditional medicine, possesses remarkable anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antifungal, and wound-healing properties primarily attributed to its bioactive constituent, curcumin. Despite its therapeutic potential, the clinical application of turmeric extract is restricted by poor aqueous solubility, rapid degradation, limited skin permeation, and low bioavailability. Recent advances in nanotechnology have facilitated the development of polymeric nanoparticle-based delivery systems capable of overcoming these limitations. Polymeric nanoparticles prepared using biocompatible and biodegradable polymers such as chitosan, poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA), gelatin, and alginate have demonstrated significant potential in enhancing the stability, controlled release, skin penetration, and therapeutic efficacy of turmeric-derived bioactive compounds. Encapsulation of turmeric extract within polymeric nanocarriers protects sensitive phytoconstituents from degradation while improving drug localization at the target site. This review summarizes the therapeutic potential of turmeric in dermatological applications, discusses the limitations associated with conventional turmeric delivery, and highlights recent advances in turmeric extract-loaded polymeric nanoparticles for topical drug delivery. Furthermore, formulation strategies, preparation methods, mechanisms of enhanced skin permeation, and future perspectives for clinical translation are discussed. The findings suggest that turmeric-loaded polymeric nanoparticles represent a promising nanotechnological approach for improving the treatment of various skin disorders and may contribute to the development of safer and more effective dermatological therapies.
Background: Aspirin has a short biological half-life and may cause gastrointestinal irritation, creating a rationale for sustained-release delivery. This study evaluated crude Musa sp. banana peel powder (BPP), an abundant polysaccharide-rich agricultural by-product, as a natural matrix former and compared its performance with hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC). Methods: Aspirin matrix tablets were prepared by dry granulation using 60 mg BPP (F1), 90 mg BPP (F2), or HPMC as the reference polymer. BPP swelling, powder flow, tablet weight variation, friability, hardness, thickness, 12-hour in-vitro drug release, and release kinetics were evaluated. Results: BPP exhibited a swelling index of 156.91%, confirming appreciable hydration capacity. All batches showed workable flow and acceptable physical characteristics, although HPMC produced the strongest tablets and lowest friability. Increasing BPP from 60 to 90 mg improved hardness from 4.40 to 5.97 kg/cm² and reduced friability from 0.83% to 0.54%. F1 released 82.7% aspirin within 3 hours, demonstrating inadequate retardation. In contrast, F2 released 44.3%, 69.8%, and 97.6% at 3, 6, and 12hours, respectively, closely approaching the HPMC profile of 42.8%, 67.7%, and 98.4%. Mean dissolution times were 2.28, 5.40, and 5.76 hours for F1, F2, and HPMC, respectively. F2 and HPMC fitted the Korsmeyer–Peppas model (R²=0.9962 and 0.9984) and showed anomalous non-Fickian transport. Conclusion: At 90 mg, crude BPP formed a functional hydrophilic matrix capable of sustaining aspirin release for 12 hours, with performance approaching HPMC. Its pharmaceutical use requires excipient standardization, compatibility, stability, salicylic-acid, content-uniformity, batch-reproducibility, and in-vivo studies before it can be considered a viable alternative.
