The tibialis posterior tendon (TPT) demonstrates substantial anatomical variability in its branching and attachment morphology, extending beyond the simplified concept of a predominantly navicular attachment. This narrative review critically reappraises the classification of TPT attachment patterns proposed by Olewnik and places it in the context of subsequent anatomical, radiological, and functional evidence. Later anatomical studies have confirmed extensive variation in the number, distribution, and surface area of TPT attachments and have identified configurations not represented within the original classification. These findings support the use of classification systems as structured descriptive frameworks rather than exhaustive catalogues of TPT morphology. Cadaveric imaging studies demonstrate that complex TPT branching and attachment anatomy can be depicted on MRI; however, individual anatomical types and subtypes have not undergone systematic radiological validation. Representative MRI examples are therefore included for anatomical illustration rather than as diagnostic criteria. The functional significance of individual attachment patterns and their potential relationship to hindfoot and midfoot joint morphology remain incompletely understood. Further anatomical, imaging, and biomechanical studies are required to determine whether specific TPT patterns have reproducible radiological or functional correlates.
Smartphone-based photogrammetry may provide an accessible way to create reusable three-dimensional (3D) models from cadaveric specimens for anatomy education. This study evaluated medical students’ perceptions of these models and explored factors associated with their overall evaluations. This cross-sectional study included 100 medical students who evaluated images and linked videos of smartphone-derived cadaveric models using a 22-item Likert-type questionnaire. Group differences were examined using non-parametric tests. Internal consistency, preliminary factor analysis, Spearman correlations, and exploratory multiple linear regression were also assessed. Participating students generally evaluated the model materials positively. The highest-rated items concerned long-term reuse through a digital model library (4.28 ± 0.59), improved access when cadaveric material is limited (4.26 ± 0.71), support for 3D thinking in interventional or surgical settings (4.22 ± 0.60), and preparation for clinical clerkships (4.19 ± 0.53). Regular integration into anatomy teaching was supported by 82
The mandible is constantly altered based on function and age, especially in cases of tooth loss. Although the measurements of Ramus have been extensively studied, the quantitative analysis of sigmoid notch morphology and its proportional relationships has not yet been well documented. In this paper, we propose a new measurement called the Sigmoid Notch Index (SNI) to evaluate these relationships. A comparative cross-sectional study was conducted on 121 adult dry human mandibles of South Indian origin, categorized based on dental status as completely dentulous (CD), partially edentulous (PE), and completely edentulous (CE). Bilateral measurements including sigmoid notch depth, condyle-coronoid interdistance, condyle height, coronoid height, gonial angle, ramus height, and ramus width were measured using digital calipers and a goniometer. Linear mixed effects models were used to assess the influence of dental status and side. Significant variations were noted in multiple mandibular parameters with regard to their dental status, specifically the gonial angle, ramus height, and condylar measurements. However, there was no significant variability in SNI despite variations in individual parameters. The SNI appears to be an innovative and reproducible morphometric index that demonstrates stability in relation to proportionality of the mandibular ramus.
This study aimed to evaluate age-stratified morphometric estimates for the external aperture of the carotid canal (EACC) in a paediatric population; it also aimed to assess age-related differences in its morphological and morphometric characteristics and the relationship between its dimensions and transverse skull-base width, measured as the distance between the supramastoid crests (SC-to-SC). This retrospective study included 700 EACCs obtained from 350 patients aged between 1 and 18 years, evenly distributed across five age groups. Length, width, estimated area of the EACC, and distances to the midline, supramastoid crest, and mandible were measured on computed tomography images. Morphological types were classified as round, oval, and distinctly transversely elongated according to the width-to-length ratio. Generalized Estimating Equations (GEE) were used to account for bilateral shape dependency. The mean EACC length was 4.11 ± 0.88 mm, the width was 5.39 ± 1.19 mm and the estimated area was 18.03 ± 7.13 mm2. Age group had a very strong effect on all parameters (η2p = 0.389–0.822). Polynomial regression revealed an asynchronous trajectory: aperture dimensions peaked at 10–13 years (quadratic trend), whereas landmark distances increased linearly up to 14–18 years. After Bonferroni correction, EACC width, estimated area and SC-to-SC distance were significantly larger in males. Oval type predominated (56
